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The D. Van Noftrand Company 

intend this book to be sold to the Public 
at the advertised price, and supply it to 
the Trade on terms which will not allow 
of reduction. 



*n 



TEXTILES 



A? F? BARKER, M.Sc. 



WITH CHAPTERS ON 

THE MERCERIZED AND ARTIFICIAL FIBRES, 
AND THE DYEING OF TEXTILE MATERIALS 

BY W. M. GARDNER, M.SC, F.C.S. 

SILK THROWING AND SPINNING 

BY R. SNOW 

THE COTTON INDUSTRY 

BY W. H. COOK 

THE LINEN INDUSTRY 

BY F. BRADBURY 





NEW YORK 

D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 

23 MURRAY AND 27 WARREN STREETS 
1910 






By transfer from 

Q. S. Tariff Board 

loia 






PREFACE 

In the following pages practically the whole range of 
Textiles comes under review, with the -exception of certain 
very special branches, such as Trimmings, Hose-pipings, 
Beltings, etc. It is hardly to be expected that such a wide 
field can be satisfactorily covered by one writer, however 
well he may have been trained and whatever may have 
been his opportunities of gaining practical experience and 
insight. Thus, although I alone am responsible for the 
great bulk of the work, special chapters by recognised 
authorities have been introduced. Professor Gardner 
is responsible for the chapters on " The Mercerized and 
Artificial Fibres " and " Dyeing " ; Mr. E. Snow for the 
chapter on " Silk Throwing and Spinning"; Mr. W. H. Cook 
for the chapter on " The Cotton Industry " ; and Professor 
Bradbury for the chapter on " The Linen Industry." That 
these chapters add much to the practical value of the 
treatise will at once be conceded. 

The authors hope that this work may prove of value to 
those who require extensive but accurate information on 
the whole range of the Textile Industries ; that the 



vi PBEFACE 

technicalities dealt with, in the work will serve well the 
practical man in his every-day difficulties ; and finally that 
the student desiring an all-round knowledge upon which 
to soundly base his later special knowledge will here find 
that which he seeks. 

Aldeed F. Barker. 



The Technical College, Bradford, 
February 16th, 1910. 



CONTENTS 



CHAP. 
I. 



IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XT. 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 



THE HISTORY OF THE TEXTILE INDUSTRIES ; ALSO OF 

TEXTILE INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS. 
THE WOOL, SILK, COTTON, FLAX, ETC., GROWING 

INDUSTRIES 

THE MERCERIZED AND ARTIFICIAL FIBRES EMPLOYED IN 

THE TEXTILE INDUSTRIES 

THE DYEING OF TEXTILE MATERIALS 

THE PRINCIPLES OF SPINNING 

PROCESSES PREPARATORY TO SPINNING . 

THE PRINCIPLES OF WEAVING 

THE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING AND COLOURING 
THE PRINCIPLES OF FINISHING . . ' . 

TEXTILE CALCULATIONS 

THE WOOLLEN INDUSTRY 

THE WORSTED INDUSTRY 

THE DRESS GOODS, STUFF, AND LININGS INDUSTRY . 

THE TAPESTRY AND CARPET INDUSTRY 

SILK THROWING AND SPINNING. .... 

THE COTTON INDUSTRY 

THE LINEN INDUSTRY HISTORICALLY AND COMMERCIALLY 

CONSIDERED 

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS AND THE FUTURE OF THE 
TEXTILE INDUSTRIES 

INDEX 



17 
55 

63 
85 
115 
154 
172 
192 
205 
223 
232 
246 
256 
267 
320 

336 

360 
371 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



FIG. 
1. 
2. 

3. 
4. 



PAGE 

. 23 

. 25 

35, 36, 37, 38 

. 39 



WOOLS AND HAIRS 

WOOL GROWING COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD 
THE COTTON FIBRES OF COMMERCE 
THE WORLD'S COTTON PRODUCTION 

5. THE WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF FLAX, HEMP, JUTE AND 

RAMIE 

6. MICROGRAPHS OF WOOL FIBRES . 
7 AND 8. MICROGRAPHS OF COTTON AND SILK FIBRES . 

9. DOUBLE- GROOVED WHEEL A ; PEDAL B; FLYER C ; BOBBIN D 
9A ARRANGEMENT OF FLYER AND BOBBIN .... 

10. SINGLE ROLLER, DOUBLE ROLLERS AND DRAFTING ROLLERS 

1 1 . DRAFTING ROLLERS FOR VARIOUS LENGTHS OF STAPLES OF 

COTTON 

12. ILLUSTRATING THE RELATIVE SIZES OF WOOL AND COTTON 

DRAFTING ROLLERS 

13. ARKWRIGHT'S WATER FRAME 

14. POSSIBLE POSITION OF SPINDLE IN RELATIONSHIP TO 

DRAFTING ROLLERS 

14A POSSIBLE POSITION OF SPINDLE WITH GUIDE IN RELATION 
SHIP TO DRAFTING ROLLERS 

15. RING SPRING FRAME 

16. CAP SPINNING FRAME 

17. GENERAL VIEW OF WOOLLEN MULE .... 
17A. (A) CONDENSED WOOLLEN SLIVER, PRIOR TO SPINNING 

(B) WORSTED SLIVER, PRIOR TO SPINNING 
17B. WORSTED MULE SECTION 

18. PLATT'S MULE-FRAME, SECTIONAL VIEW 

19. STAGES IN WOOLLEN YARN SPINNING .... 

20 AND 20A. STAGES IN WOOL COMBING AND WORSTED YARN 

SPINNING 

21. GRAPHIC ILLUSTRATION OF NET SILK YARNS 



47 
49 
52 

87 
88 
90 

92 

93 
95 

97 

98 
100 
102 
105 

106 
109 
113 
120 

122 
123 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



FIG. 

22. SPUN SILK DRAFTS 

22A. STAGES IN CHINA GRASS SPINNING .... 

23. COTTON GIN 

23A. SECTION OF SINGLE MACARTHY COTTON GIN 

24. THE COTTON SCUTCHER 

24A. SECTION OF SINGLE COTTON SCUTCHER 

25. THE FLAX SCUTCHER 

26. THE HOT-AIR BACKWASHER 

27. PLAN AND ELEVATION OF SHEETER GILL-BOX . 
2?A. FOUR-HEAD FRENCH GILL-BOX IN PLAN AND ELEVATION 

28. SELF-CLEANING FLAT COTTON CARDER .... 

29. ILLUSTRATING THE SIZES OF CYLINDERS IN CARDS FOR 

CARDING VARIOUS QUALITIES OF WOOL . 

30. GRAPHIC ILLUSTRATION OF CARDING .... 

31. GRAPHIC ILLUSTRATION OF CARDING .... 

32. SILK DRESSING FRAME 

33. POSITION OF LARGE AND TWO SMALL CIRCLES IN THE 

NOBLE COMB 

33A. SELF-SUPPORTING NOBLE COMB : THE LATEST FORM . 

34. PRICKING FROM A LONG WOOL NOBLE COMB CIRCLE . 
34A. VIEW OF WOOL FIBRE IN THE PINS OF A NOBLE COMB 

35. PLAN AND ELEVATION OF A DRAWING-BOX 

36. CONE DRAWING- BOX 

37. FRENCH DRAWING FRAME IN PLAN AND ELEVATION . 
37A. ENLARGED VIEW OF PRINCIPAL PARTS IN A FRENCH 

DRAWING-BOX . . . . . 

3S. TAPPET LOOM WITH OUTSIDE TREADING . 

39. HEAVY COATING LOOM 

40. GENERAL VIEW OF A JACQUARD LOOM 

41. ORDINARY, GAUZE, AND PLUSH INTERLACINGS . 
4lA. SHOWING, WITH A FABRIC COMPOSED OF WHITE WARP AND 

BLACK WEFT, PLAIN WEAVE INTERLACING 
4lB. GAUZE GROUND FABRIC UPON WHICH A PLAIN AND WEFT 

FLUSH FIGURE IS THROWN 

41C. PLUSH FABRIC 

42. 1, THE ORDINARY; 2, WARP-RIB; AND 3, WEFT-RIB INTER 

LACINGS 

42A. 4, WEFT-BACK; AND 5, DOUBLE CLOTH INTERLACINGS 

43. FOUR VARIETIES OF SIMPLE GAUZE CROSSINGS . 



PAGE 
124 
125 
128 
129 
131 
132 
133 
134 
136 
137 
138 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



FIG. PAGE 

43a. GAUZE STRUCTURE WITH GROUPING OF THE PICKS AS THE 

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURE 183 

43B. GAUZE STRUCTURE WITH FANCY YARN INTRODUCED . . 183 

43C. DOUBLE WEFT GAUZE 184 

43d. double GAUZE INTERLACING 185 

44. TWO TYPES OF PILE FABRICS 186 

45. ILLUSTRATING THE PRODUCTION OF DOUBLE PLUSHERS . 186 

46. EXAMPLE OF THE REPRESENTATION OF SIMPLE INTER- 

LACINGS ON POINT OR SQUARE PAPER .... 187 

47. EXAMPLE OF THE REVERSING OF PATTERN DUE TO DE- 

FECTIVE GRADING OF COLOUR RANGES .... 188 

48. ILLUSTRATING THE GRADING OF COLOUR RANGES TO OB- 

VIATE REVERSING OF PATTERN 189 

49. ILLUSTRATING THE SETTING OF FABRICS; ALSO THE 

WEIGHTS OF FABRICS 205 

50. ILLUSTRATING THE SETTING OF FABRICS .... 207 

51. GRAPHIC ILLUSTRATION OF THE RESULTANT COUNTS OF 

TWISTING TOGETHER TWO THREADS OF DIFFERENT 
COUNTS . . . 214 

52. GRAPHIC ILLUSTRATION OF THE ORDER OF PROCESSES IN 

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE 230 

53A. GRAPHIC ILLUSTRATION OF WOOLLEN AND WORSTED 

INDUSTRIES ' 236 

53B. GRAPHIC ILLUSTRATION OF COMBING PROCESSES FOR LONG 

WOOL 237 

53c. graphic illustration of the combing processes for 

short wool . . • 240 

53d. graphic illustration of the drawing and spinning 
processes on the french, english, merino (open), 

and merino (cone) systems : . . . . 241 

53e. warping, sizing, dressing, etc., processes . . . 248 

53f. graphic illustrations of dress goods, scotch tweeds 

and worsted coatings finishing processes . . 253 

54. simple tapestry structure and design . . . 258 

55. scotch carpet structure 259 

56. axminster carpet structure 260 

57. brussels carpet structure 262 

58. silk reeling, a.d.. 1500 266 

59. silk reeling, 1900 266 



Xll 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



IN ONE THREAD 



KEELING COMBINED 
D PROCESSES . 



FIG. 

60. CROISSUE.E BY THE SYSTEM CHAMBON 

61. CROISSURE BY TAV ALETTE . 

62. THE JETTE-BOUT, COMBINING EIVE COCOONS 

63. DUVET 

64. BOUCHONS OR SLUBS . 

65. KNOTS 

66. BAVES IMPERFECTLY JOINED 

67. VRILLES .... 

68. SILK-HOUSE .... 

69. THE RITSON SPINNING MILL 

70. SPINNER (NEW TYPE) . 

71. THROWING MILL, TWISTING AND 

72. THE BRADLEY SPINNER COMPOUN 

73. SILK REELING MACHINERY AT THE ITALIAN EXHIBITION 

OF 1906 .... 

74. INTERIOR OF KASHMIR REELING FACTORY . . . . 

75. MODERN SPINNING MILL 

76. PLAN OF COTTON MILL 

77. GRAPHIC ILLUSTRATION OF PROCESSES IN COTTON MANU- 

FACTURE 

78. PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF A LAPPING ROOM IN THE OLDEN 

TIMES 

79. THE LOCAL LINEN FAIR AT BANBRIDGE, IN COUNTY DOWNE, 

IRELAND, IN THE OLDEN TIMES 

80. LOADING FLAX 

81. RETTING FLAX: PUTTING FLAX IN DAM . . . . 

82. RETTING FLAX: TAKING FLAX OUT OF DAM AFTER, SAY, 

TEN DAYS 

83. FLAX DRYING : 3TACK AFTER RETTING .... 

84. FLAX SPREADING 

85. INSIDE AN IRISH SCUTCHING MILL 

86. INSIDE AN IRISH SCUTCHING MILL 



PAGE 

275 

276 

277 
278 
278 
279 
280 
280 
281 
283 
284 
285 
286 

290 
292 
330 
332 

334 

346 

350 
351 
352 

353 
354 
355 
357 
358 



1886. 



Soi26 



New 
Queensli 

Victoria 
Tasmani 
South 
West A 
New Ze 
Cape 



AI 



181 

84,065 

360,731 

21,463 

30,628 

16,862 

260,912 

an 227,289 



T367.131 



East In<jl 

China 

Gewnan 

Spanish 

Portugal 

Russian 

Turkey, 

Peruviai 

Buenos . 

Falklan< 

Italian i 

Sundry 

Goats' V 



Thl9,182 



18,525 

2,393 
12,005 
15,766 

8,589 
65,027 
60,079 
49.927 
12,440 

6,614 

1,574 
22,422 
76,690 



1887. 



245.290 
106.614 
345.396, 

22.261 
106,403 

17,656 
272,918 
234,728 



1,351,266 

123,945 

2,149 

9,589 

6,621 

9.764 

66,422 

86,735 

69.912 

7,016 

7,697 

1,636 

14,523 

56,005 



1888. 



321,154 
122,867 
380,330 

20.167 
115,849 

19,382 
265,68 1 
288,910 



1,813,310 



1,534,343 

134,170 

3,789 

5,356 

8,137 

10.020 

59,802 

77.793 

56,235 

10,350 

7.578 

1,187 

21,433 

72,767 



1889. 



306,091 
126,637 
372.057 

22,035 
111,236 

22,897 
277,726 
287,334 



2,002,960 



1,526,013 

140,868 

5,455 

7,358 

10,448 

11,110 

106.263 

85.637 

67.047 

11,885 

8,953 

2.75S 

30,573 

77,526 



2,091.894 



1890. 



274,448 

144,093 

365,172 

23,537 

98,249 

27,949 

292,724 

283,494 

1,509,666 

125,670 

8,200 

4,592 

5,854 

7,684 

65,506 

73,169 

57,500 

6,310 

9,481 

1,058 

19,065 

48,131 



1,941,886 



1891. 



353,407 
173,558 
365,490 

25,855 
120,665 

26,933 
315,055 
316,510 

1,697,473 

133,767 

15,316 

3,335 

1,753 

7,188 

96,205 

62,301 

62,068 

9,145 

12,859 

2,494 

19,258 

62,993 

2,186,155 



1902. 



1903. 



New Soil278,181 
Queensld 90,135 



Victoria 



299.643 



Tasmani 22.112 
South A| 66,157 
West Au 1 39,990 
New Zea|411,284 
Cape an<231,670 

'439,172 

East In<jlQ6,538 

3,960 
4.486 
2,128 



China 
German 
Spanish 
Portugal! 10,633 



Russian 
Turkey, 



Peruviai 61,603 
Buenos \ 37.220 
Falklam 39.403 



12,861 
36,692 



1904. 



233.922 


209,023 


75.052 


77.728 


224.787 


226,133 


25,189 


20,523 


67,001 


60,019 


32.456 


33,851 


436,500 


374,463 


224,458 


188,843 



Italian <! 
Sundry 



Goats' ¥104,644 
T< 923,072 



Hi 7 
58,165 



1,319,365 

129,885 

3,792 

4,629 

1,413 

13,377 

10,772 

39,802 

61,274 

45,026 

39,027 

4,749 

42,467 

109,868 

1,825,446 



1,190,583 

158,600 

5,367 

7,668 

2,392 

11,587 

9,550 

53,712 

60,735 

22.719 

41.589 

3,618 

48,706 

100,939 

1,717,765 



190c 



240.922 

148,059 

261.724 

13,770 

76,469 

44,623 

394,390 

192.210 



1906. 



223,648 
131,622 

221.684 
14,551 
78,579 
38,724 

415,879 
194,949 



1,327,167 

153,841 

7,284 

6,636 

1,732 

11,018 

7,404 

43,104 

55.163 

52,S31) 

34,903 

3,889 

46,485 

101,712 

1,853,177 



1,319,636 

180,961 

8.742 

10,196 

2,139 

9,900 

19,476 

53,856 

63,091 

59,254 

41,884 

1,382 

47,943 

100,350 

1,918,810 



1907. 



308,628 
130,128 
330,326 

22,147 

89,637 

41,467 

442.973 

259,691 



1,624,997 

159,818 

15,060 

11,533 

4,077 

10,214 

15,889 

51,725 

53,493 

70,348 

53,249 

2,761 

43,176 

109,077 

2,225.417 





LIST 1 V . IMPORTATION OF COLONIAL AND JL 1 OKJiJ 


ON WOOl 


INTO THK UNITED lilNGDOJl 


PROM 18UU TO iyoy. 












1800. 


1810. 


1820. 


1830. 


1810. 


1S50. 


1860. 


1870. 


1880. 


1885. 


1886. 


1887. 


1888. 


1889. 


1890. 


1891. 




New South Wales . . 1 


658 


83 i 


213 


3,998 


25,820 


51,463 


46,092 


142,588 


221,777 


f 217,119 
| 104,361 


265,181 


245.290 


321.151 


306,091 


2; 1 ! In 


555.107 




Queensland . . . J 




















84,06.) 


100,614 


122,867 


126,63; 


I 1 1 093 


1 73.55S 

365, Hill 

25,855 

1 ''O 00", 




Victorian .... 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


55,378 


78,186 


209,038 


306,817 


317,152 


360,731 


345,396 


380,330 


572.o:,7 


505 17" 




TaSmanian .... 


— 


— ' 


180 


4,005 


11.721 


1/.468 


16,731 


17.039 


23,653 


21,681 


21,463 


22.201 


20.107 


22.055 


■'5 537 




South Australian 


— 


— 


— 


— 


3,484 


1 L,822 


23,554 


68,679 


109,917 


115, 10S 


130,628 


106,403 


115,849 


111.230, 


98,219 
"7 949 




"West Australian 


— 


— 1 


— 


— 


— 


1,046 


1,992 


5,260 


9,211 


14,427 


10,862 


17,656 


19,382 


' 


26 933 




New Zealand .... 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


1,502 


17,870 


106,600 


189,411 


237,S75 


260,912 


272.918 


265,684 


277,726 


292 724 


315,055 

510.510 




Cape and Natal 


— 


15 


29 


— 


3,477 
44,502 


19,879 
158,558 


55,711 


124.050 


190.614 


182,168 


227,289 


234,728 


288,910 


287,334 


283,494 




Total Colonial 


658 


98 


422 


8,003 


240,136 


673,314 


1,054,430 


1,209,891 1,367,131 


1,351,266 


1,534,343 


1,526,013 


1,509.666 


1,697,473 




East India and Persian . 





. — 


— 


— 


7,611 


9,704 


62,226 


44,090 


112.710 


93,699 


IIS. 7,25 


123,945 


131,170 


140,868 


125,070 


155.767 




China ..... 


— 


— 


— 


■ — 


— 


— ■ 


119 


337 


1,672 


3,426 


2.3'.):; 


2.1 (!) 


5.7S!) 


5,15.-: 


8,200 


15,316 




German ..... 


1,170 


2,221 


14,009 


74,496 


63,278 


30,491 


19,681 


16,459 


28,119 


9,700 


12,005 


9,589 


5,550 


7.35S 


4,592 


5,:;:;., 
1,753 




Spanish 


30,318 


2,976 


17,681 


8,218 


5.273 


2. 1 05 


4,199 


1,583 


14,603 


97 


15,766 


6,621 


8,137 


10. lis 


5,854 




Portugal ..... 


9,622 


16,772 


475 


2.31!) 


1,569 


7,361 


24,503 


9,287 


14,356 


7.054 


8,589 


9.76 I 


10.020 


11,110 


7,684 


7,18S 




Russian ..... 


25 


868 J 


150 


1,680 


11,776 


9.758 


22,150 


18,474 


45,417 


63,368 


0.5.02 7 


0,0.122 


59,802 


1 00.205 


05,500 


'.10.205 




Turkey, Egyptian & N. Africa 


76 


676 


380 


20 


5.492 


11,896 


17,545 


17,607 


49,853 


32,199 


60,07!) 


86,735 


77,793 


85.63 7 


73,16!) 


02.501 




Peruvian & Chilian 


— 


601 


25 


64 


40,004 


39,731 


69,068 


64,173 


52,876 


65.691 


49,927 


69,942 


56,235 


67,047 


57,500 


62,068 




Buenos Ayres 6c Montevideo . 


— 


— , 


— 


— 


— 


3,841 


5,058 


11,122 


9,852 


8,728 


12,440 


7,016 


10.350 


11,885 


0.3 lo 


9,] 15 




Falkland Is. & Punta Arenas . 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


4,700 


6,909 


6,614 


7,697 


7.57S 


8,953 


9,481 


12,859 




Italian & Trieste 


84 


683 


334 


14 


4,055 


1.536 


719 


832 


2.505 


928 


1,574 


1 ,636 


1,187 


2,758 


1 ,058 


2,494 




Sundry 


487 


349 1 


1.4 7H 


3,995 


2,51!) 


3,041 


15,172 


16,643 


35,973 


14,990 


22,422 


14,525 


21,433 


5,0.5 75 


lD.oo;, 


19,258 




Goats' Wool .... 


— 


. . 


— 


— 


186,079 


13,139 


11,915 


14,196 


57,449 


52,457 


76,690. 
319,182 


56,005 


72.707 


i 7.520, 


48,131 


62,993 




Total Bales . 


42,440 


25,244 


35,555 


98818 


291,161 


492,491 


888,117 


1,484,581 


1,569,717 1, 


1,813,310 


2,002,960 


2,091,894 


1,941,886 


2,186,155 






1892. 


1893. 


1894. 


1895. 


1896. 


1897. 


1898. 


1899. 


1900. 


1901. 


1902. 


1903. 


1904, 


1905. 


1906. 


1907. 




New South Wales . 


373,757 


310,534 


347.277 


369,037 


293,759 


316,754 


282,574 


276,303 


248,408 


353,091 


278,181 


233,922 


20!), 025 


240,922 


225.0 IS 


508,628 




Queensland .... 


217,330 


196,481 


190,372 


221,972 


210,970 


209.784 


180,095 


148,54 8 


121.401 


117,353 


90,135 


75,052 


77,728 


l4S,ii.-,!l 


151.022 


1 50, 1 28 




Victorian. . . . . 


385,914 


347,036 


382,937 


418,560 


345,445 


358.717 


301,772 


292,166 


.255,131 


375,843 


299,643 


224.787 


220.155 


201.721 


221,684 


550,326 




Tasmanian .... 


23,61 1 


20,794 


22,458 


22,655 


2'.'. 5(1 7 


20,495 


18,917 


15.770 


IS. 225 


24,316 


22.112 


25,489 


20,523 


13.770 


1 0/0,1 


22,1 17 




South Australian 


112,166 


104,838 


103,462 


115,717 


118,616 


90,055 


60,326 


01,444 


50,720 


86,556 


00.157 


67,001 


60,019 


76,469 


78,579 


89,637 




West Australian 


25,002 


18,541 


26.959 


24,332 


34.011 


26,948 


26,192 


27,077 


26,317 


31,354 


39,990 


32.456 


33,851 


44,623 


5S.72I 


11,4 07 




New Zealand .... 


319,615 


349.061 


378,991 


377,934 


355,257 


386,635 


403,397 


400,137 


395,693 


399,691 


411,284 


436,500 


374.403 


394,390 


115,879 


1 12. '.175 




Cape and Natal 


278.176 


274,616 


240,606 


252,062 


294,253 


243,848 


283,115 


264,569 


102,268 


214,522 


231,670 


224,45S 


188,843 


192,210 


194,949 


259,691 




Total Colonial 


1,765,904 


1,621,901 


1,693,062 


1,802,269 


1,674,878 


1,653,236 


1,556,388 


1,486,014 


1,221,163 


1,602,726 1,439,172 


1,319,365 


1,190,583 


1,327,167 


1,319,636 


1,624,997 




East India and Persian . 


141,175 


131.105 


162,980 


163,706 


185,465 


1 72,309 


154,804 


133,632 


142,518 


109,646 


106,538 


129,885 


158,600 


I55.SII 


180,961 


L59.818 




China 


10,1)91 


10,873 


14,971 


14,765 


6,216 


4,022 


8,813 


2,781 


4,151 


1,775 


3,960 


5,792 


5.507 


7.2S 1 


8,742 


15,00) 




German ..... 


4,478 


5,682 


1,644 


4.051 


4,501 


9.077 


8,999 


7,675 


9,126 


6.677 


4,486 


1.0,2!) 


7,668 


0.050 


10.190 


11.535 




Spanish ..... 


3,079 


4,742 


1.631 


10.638 


4,240 


12,948 


3,110 


3,481 


896 


1,293 


2,128 


1,415 


2,392 


1,752 


2.1;;'.) 


4,077 




Portugal 


9,304 


8.435 


9,941 


9.0 IS 


12,620 


16,294 


7,772 


8,314 


5.24 2 


9.928 


10,633 


15.577 


11.587 


11,01S 


9.900 


10.21 1 




Russian . . 


63.297 


27,994 


30,789 


34,872 


32,998 


60.405 


39,186 


32,063 


28.01 S 


14,922 


12,861 


10,772 


9,550 


7,404 


11), 1,0 


I5,SS!I 




Turkey, Egyptian k N. Africa 


81,901 


55.011 


40,094 


07.056 


42,435 


53,984 


32.955 


28,363 


39,108 


26,746 


36,692 


39.802 


55.712 


43,104 


53,856 


51,725 




Peruvian ct Chilian . 


67,184 


72. HON 


68,391 


62,938 


66,633 


67,453 


00.34 


72,318 


70.423 


61,515 


61,603 


01.27 1 


60,735 


55,163 


63,091 


.,5. 193 




Buenos Ayres & Montevideo . 


15,368 


16,734 


23.980 


38,659 


31.020 


47,931 


41,205 


20,109 


22,077 


53.150 


57. "20 


45,026 


22.71!) 


52,839 


59,254 


70,343 




Falkland Is. & Punta Arenas . 


13,615 


15,087 


10,413 


18,017 


19,504 


23.498 


27,645 


30.019 


2S.784 


35,395 


39,403 


39,027 


11,589 


34,903 


1 1,884 


.. 149 




Italian & Trieste 


Ml 


2,760 


2,S97 


1,683 


1,438 


2.138 


3.547 


6.042 


2,768 


1,866 


5.507 


1.749 


5.0,1s 


3,889 


1,382 


2,761 

43,176 

|ol),o,7 




Sundry . 


23,935 


20,322 


24,777 


45.139 


34.629 


50,034 


48,729 


62.50S 


37,150 


45,463 


5S.1 0,5 


42,467 


48,706 


46,485 


17,943 




Goats' Wool .... 


71,170 


67,061 


66,873 


94,412 


50,473 


95,487 


89,511 


107,290 


69.445 


77,514 


in 1.0 1 1 


109,868 


100,939 


1 1 . i I 2 


100,350 




Total Bales . 


2,271,642 


2,060,738 


2,158,443 


2,367,853 


2,167,059 


2,269,416 


2,082,984 


2,000.609 


,1,680,869 


2,048,616 1.923,072 


1,825,446 


1,717,765 


1,853,177 


1,918,810 


2,225,417 



Note. — Specially prepared by Messrs. Jacomb, 8011 & Co., of London. 



TEXTILES 



CHAPTEE I 



THE HISTORY OF THE TEXTILE INDUSTRIES J ALSO OF TEXTILE 
INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS 

The authentic history of the textile industries has been 
carried so far back into the past ages by the archaeological 
discoveries of the last hundred years that an interesting 
account of the evolution of these industries could readily be 
compiled. Such an account, however, while of interest 
from an archaeological and historical point of view, might 
not be of much practical value : it would almost certainly be 
diffuse where concentration and triteness were desirable, and, 
possibly, too brief in dealing with those periods when change 
multiplied change, causing a rapid and extensive evolution. 

A sequential history of the development of the textile 
industries will here be preferable, although such will 
naturally sacrifice a certain amount of absolute accuracy 
to ensure a more perfect statement of the sequence of 
developments; perhaps even a sacrifice of actual historic 
order may at times be necessary to impress the real 
historic teaching involved. Not that in the following pages 
history is to be outraged and actualities suppressed or 
changed out of recognition ; but rather that to gain all that 
history should teach us a certain practical licence will 

T. b 



2 TEXTILES 

be taken, its justification being in the clearness and 
precision thereby gained. 

Throwing back our minds to the time when our 
ancestors were emerging from the barbaric state, we 
can well picture to ourselves their earliest dress as the 
skins of slaughtered animals. As the human race was 
probably evolved from the torrid-temperate zone (Central 
Asia), it is possible that some lighter form of wearing 
garment preceded the skins of animals for personal wear, 
But it seems very probable that the first idea of textures of 
real wearing value would be first thus suggested. 

If any animal such as the sheep then existed, we can 
well imagine that the shearing of a fleece would suggest the 
matting together of fibres already favourably disposed for 
the formation of a continuous covering. Felt fabrics 
undoubtedly came early in the historic sequence ; thus both 
garments and hats of felt were worn in Ancient Greece ; 
while remains of felts can also be referred to a much earlier 
period. But wool being the only fibre which truly " felts," 
the felt industry naturally cannot go further back than to 
the discovery of the felting property of wool. 

Wool could only be converted into a woven fabric by 
being spun into a "fibre-thread." Now prior to the 
spinning of " fibre-threads " — -or yarns as we now term them 
— the art of interweaving rushes and other fibres or bundles 
of fibres of long length was undoubtedly practised, so that 
the art of weaving evidently preceded that of spinning in 
the natural evolution. Again, it is probable that the art of 
weaving preceded the art of felting, as it is a debateable 
point whether the art of felting preceded the art of spinning. 

The spinning and weaving of fibre-threads or yarns are 



THE INDUSTEIES, INVENTIONS AND INVENTOES 3 

obviously most delicate processes in comparison with rush 
and coarse fibre weaving ; but it is nevertheless true that 
as far back as the early Egyptian Dynasties a most refined 
art of weaving was practised, so much so that to-day 
Egyptian mummy cloths of a gauze structure are found 
worthy of reproduction. 

Tunning to the conditions under which the arts of 
spinning and weaving would be practised in the early days 
of our civilization, we come across traditional industries 
retained in the family. It is more than probable that in 
some of the ancient civilizations the textile industries became 
more than family concerns, but so far as we are concerned 
we may regard the textile industry as essentially a family 
industry until the home industries — developed from family 
industries — appeared about the commencement of the 
eighteenth century. This does not discount the " Trade 
Guilds " which flourished in many centres of industry, 
such being based as much upon the family as upon a more 
highly organized form of the industry. 

So long as all industries were distributed over the 
country it is evident that there would neither be the need 
nor the incentive for large production : the incentive would 
rather be towards the production of better fabrics and more 
artistic effects. Hence the marvellous beauty of many of 
the fabrics which came down to us from a very early 
date. And it is interesting and instructive to note that up 
to the nineteenth century attempts to introduce machines 
to facilitate production invariably claimed small considera- 
tion, while new methods of producing elaborate styles were 
certainly more than welcome. The " draw-loom " was 

b 2 



4 TEXTILES 

successfully introduced from China, but M.deGennes' power- 
loom failed ; Jacquard looms were in use long before the 
power-loom was either invented or adopted by the trade. 
Thus the art of producing elaborate and beautiful textiles 
followed civilization from the East to Southern Europe and 
from Southern Europe northwards. Marked indications 
of this line of development are still evident in the present- 
day organization of our industries, as will be shown later. 

With the disturbance of the balance of production by the 
going forth of Europe's, but more especially England's, sons 
as colonizers would come the pressing demand for the 
greater production of certain commodities, of which cloth 
would be one. This would tend to break up the family 
traditions and to develop an industry organized on a larger 
scale, resulting in what might fairly be termed " specialized 
production " or organized home industries. Bringing groups 
of artisans together could not fail to stimulate industry and 
inventiveness, which in this case would naturally run on the 
lines of increased production. Now the Continent would 
naturally have shared in this evolution had it been tranquil 
and comparatively undisturbed as was England. But the 
Napoleonic wars were such a constant source of ferment on 
the Continent that tranquil, undisturbed England reaped 
nearly all the direct benefits of the very rapid evolution 
dating from this period. 

About 1790 there commenced a natural evolution of the 
textile industries — spinning and weaving — the final result 
of which was to leave England for a long period of years 
practically supreme as a manufacturing country. 

Prior to this evolution two kinds of spinning wheels 
were in use, one of which might be termed the " long-fibre 



THE INDUSTRIES, INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS 5 

wheel " and the other the " short-fibre wheel." In the case 
of the long-fibre wheel (Fig. 9) a sliver of long fibres was 
practically made up from the raw material to the right 
thickness by hand and then twisted and wound on to the 
bobbin at the same time by the action of the flyer and 
bobbin. The attempt to use a double-spindle wheel no 
doubt suggested at an early date the more perfect and 
automatic production of slivers which might then be spun 
in greater numbers by hand. Thus in 1748 Lewis Paul 
developed the idea of drafting rollers. That he probably 
got the idea from seeing rollers used for elongating or 
working metal is indicated by the fact that it was thought 
possible that one pair of rollers would do all that was 
necessary, elongation of the sliver presumably being thought 
to vary with the pressure exerted. This mistake was soon 
rectified, and two or more pairs of rollers adopted. Richard 
Arkwright now came upon the scene and, linking up the 
drafting rollers of Lewis Paul with the long-fibre spinning 
wheel, made it possible to control more than one or two 
spindles at the same time. Arkwright then linked up the 
water wheel to this machine and thus evolved what is 
known as the " water-frame," yielding a type of yarn known 
even to-day by the term " water-twist." 

It is probable that the "short-fibre wheel" was employed 
in the spinning of wool and of cotton — cotton was then a 
comparatively small industry 1 — both of which were woven 

1 Year 1701 : 

Cotton Exports £23,253 

Woollen Exports £2,000,000 

Year 1833 : 

Cotton Exports £18,486,400 

Woollen Exports £6,539,731 



6 TEXTILES 

into fabrics known as Lancashire woollens. Spindle-draft, 
as distinct from roller-draft in Arkwright's machine, was 
here employed, the reduction of a thick carded sliver into 
a comparatively thin thread being accomplished by mere 
extension, by the movement of the hand away from the 
spindle point, with the aid of a little twist ; then upon the 
completion of the drafting the necessary twist was put into 
the thread. The process was intermittent, as winding on to 
the bobbin followed this drafting and twisting. The idea 
of working more than one spindle would here be more 
difficult of realization than in the case of the flyer, as the 
cycle of operations was much more complex. Improve- 
ments in the preparation of the slivers would here also 
forward the multiplication of the spinning spindles. Thus 
Hargreaves invented the " jenny," which was simply a 
multiplication of the spindles to be worked by hand, the 
action being really an exact copy of the mechanical operation 
of spinning on the " short-fibre wheel." This was soon 
followed by the " slubbing-billy," in which the position of 
spinning spindles and the slubbings were reversed, as in 
the mule of to-day. The " billy" was gradually developed 
by such men as Kelly, Kennedy, Eaton, and many others, 
into the hand-mule, and finally the hand-mule was success- 
fully converted into the self-acting mule by Eichard 
Eoberts in 1830. 

Much has been made of the invention of the " mule " by 
Crompton. But the truth is our ideas here need consider- 
able revision. Crompton's idea of combining the drafting 
rollers of Arkwright's water-frame with the spindle- 
draft of Hargreaves' " jenny " ^as simply a " happy 
thought." Certainly this happy thought was combined 



THE INDUSTBIES, INTENTIONS AND INVENTOKS 7 

with a certain amount of resolution and skill in putting the 
idea into practice, but it should be noted that the woollen 
" mule " of to-day is not Crompton's mule at all, and in 
fact is not a "mule," but a "pure-bred," and all the 
really ingenious mechanism on both woollen, cotton, and 
worsted mules is not due to Crompton, but to the men 
mentioned above. It is further interesting to note that 
most of the complex mechanisms combined in the mule were 
known to spinners and would-be inventors prior to Eoberts 
taking the mule in hand, but owing to their lack of power 
of sequential thought they all failed in devising a successful 
machine. It was Eoberts who combined the ideas pre- 
sented to him into a harmonious whole and gave to the 
world one of the most wonderful and ingenious machines 
which has ever been invented. 

It will readily be imagined that the improvements in 
spinning just mentioned naturally resulted in a marked 
multiplication of yarn production. Curious to relate, how- 
ever, there does not appear to have been over-production of 
yarn, but rather under-production of cloth. It is said 
of the hand-loom weavers of this period that they went 
about with £5 sewn in their hats, so remunerative was 
their art. The invention of Kay's " fly-shuttle " in 1738 — 
an invention be it noted which could only affect pro- 
duction, not quality nor elaborateness of the resultant 
fabric — had been followed by others which brought the 
hand-loom up to the perfection of to-day. The word 
"witch" — applied to the shedding mechanism known 
to-day as the "dobby" — carries with it an indication of 
the way in which some of these innovations were regarded. 
The placing of two or more shuttles in movable planes or 



8 TEXTILES 

shuttle-boxes, any of which could be brought into line with 
the picking plane, was possibly introduced in more places 
than one quite independently, while " permanent back- 
rests," " setting-up " and " letting-off " motions had 
developed, so far as might be, the possibilities of the hand- 
loom from the production point of view. 

It is interesting to note that power was practically 
applied to the spinning frame earlier than to the loom. 
Arkwright's " water-frame " was successfully run shortly 
after 1769, while no practical power-loom was running 
until about 1813. By the middle of the nineteenth century 
hand-spinning was fast disappearing from all the manu- 
facturing districts, but hand- weaving is even still continued 
in the twentieth century. Arkwright's " water-frame " was 
most easily rendered automatic ; the spinning- jenny or 
" mule " up to a certain point was soon rendered auto- 
matic, but the completion of the necessarily complex cycle 
of operations automatically was not accomplished until 
Eoberts faced the problem in 1825. The cycle of operations 
involved in weaving being more complicated than the 
" water-frame " cycle, but less complicated than the 
"mule" cycle, would naturally have come in between but 
for the difficulties in obtaining a steady drive ; while the 
development of the comb into an automatic machine came 
much later than the "mule." Dr. Cartwright's first attempt 
at a power-loom was made without the slightest reference 
to a hand-loom and proved a failure. His second attempt 
was based perhaps too much upon the hand-loom, but may 
be regarded as having been fairly successful. It is well to 
fully realize that, while the introduction of water power 
facilitated spinning, it did not facilitate weaving to nearly 



THE INDUSTRIES, INVENTIONS AND INVENTOES 9 

the same extent ; simply because for weaving a really 
steady drive to ensure steady picking is necessary, and this 
was probably not by any means attained to in the early 
days of water-power driving. Later, when steam power 
was applied, marked improvements in steadiness were 
rapidly developed, with the result that practically most 
movements involved in ordinary spinning and weaving 
could be accomplished automatically from 1830 onwards. 
Then came the exodus from the country districts and the 
centralization of industries on or near to the coalfields. 
Thus it is interesting to note that prior to England becom- 
ing a manufacturing country the wool of England met the 
skill of Southern Europe in Elanders. Later a distributed 
industry is to be noted in England, the industry generally 
following the line of supply of the raw material. Still 
later the coal-power of Yorkshire meets the wool produc- 
tion of Yorkshire at Bradford, and the coal-power of 
England the cotton of America in Lancashire. 

Attention was now turned to the more perfect prepara- 
tion of the slivers of wool, cotton, flax, etc., for the subse- 
quent spinning process. Hand-cards were early displaced 
by the roller hand- card, and this in turn developed into 
the "flat-card " and later the " revolving flat-card." The 
development of the card, however, was more of an engi- 
neering problem than a problem in mechanism, the style of 
build and accuracy of setting being the real difficulties. 
There is an exception to this, however, in the case of the 
woollen condenser. Originally cardings were left exceed- 
ingly thick and unwieldy, having to be drawn out into 
slubbings and then into slivers, finally to be spun on the 
wheel or jenny. The first improvement was the dividing 



10 TEXTILES 

of the card-clothing on the last doffer into strips of 
6 inches to 8 inches wide across the doffer, so that from 
the circumference of, say, a 24 inch doffer 10 or 12 slubbings 
just the width of the card— each say 27 inches to 36 inches 
long — would be stripped, these strippings being piecened up 
on the apron of the slubbing-billy by boys and girls called 
" pieceners." Then what was called a " piecening machine " 
was added, which, taking charge of these 27 inch to 36 inch 
slubbings stripped from the doffer, joined or placed them 
into continuous slivers, which were wound on to a spindle 
to be placed later on the slubbing-billy. 

Some time after the introduction of the piecening 
machine the " condenser " made its appearance. In this 
the last doffer or doffers were clothed concentrically with 
rings of card-clothing, so that the slivers were stripped 
continuously from the doffer, and were practically endless 
as compared with the 36 inch slubbings stripped from 
across the doffer of the old card. In the latest form of 
condenser the wool is stripped from the last doffer in a 
continuous film, and then broken up into 70 to 80 filaments 
by means of narrow straps or steel bands. One wonders 
why the idea of the ring-condenser was not sooner thought 
of and why it should have been so frequently tried and 
discarded. A little thought, however, soon clears up this 
point. It may be taken that wool fibres take up a more or 
less concentric position on the card. If this be so, then 
stripping the wool off the old form of doffer would result 
in the fibres taking a concentric position in the thread, 
while in the case of the condenser they would take up a 
longitudinal position in the thread. This, no doubt, 
seriously affected the subsequent spinning, weaving, and 



THE INDUSTEIES, INVENTIONS AND INVENTOES 11 

finishing properties ; in fact, it is frequently stated that no 
fabrics equal to those made from yarn spun from the old 
piecening slubbings are to-day produced. Possibly the 
realization of this difference suggested the idea of preparing 
wool for combing by previously carding it. This was first 
carried into practice about 1847 and is to-day being 
largely applied even in the case of wools 8 inches to 
10 inches long. 

The cycle of movements in hand-combing being more 
complicated than the cycle of movements in carding, 
automatic combing naturally developed much later than 
automatic carding. The operations of lashing on, combing, 
drawing off, and the removal of " backings," of " milkings," 
and of " noil" were necessarily very complicated, and it was 
largely by the elimination of certain of these that 
mechanical combing was made a success. As with most 
other machines, the first mechanical attempts were simply 
imitations of the hand process. Dr. Cartwright from 1789 
to 1792 brought out two forms of mechanical combs 
which after many vicissitudes were laid aside for many years 
until they both again emerged — the upright circle comb 
as Heilmann's comb, the horizontal circle comb in its most 
perfect mechanical form as Noble's comb. It should be 
noted, however, that it is Lord Masham (then Mr. S. C. 
Lister) to whom credit must be given for the creation of a 
practical wool comb : without his " driving-force " there can 
be no doubt but that the evolution of the wool comb would 
have been long delayed. As with spinning so with comb- 
ing : the preparatory processes were of marked importance. 
Without the preparing or gill box and the card, mechanical 
combing would to-day be at least very imperfect if at all 



12 TEXTILES 

possible. The " Genesis of the Wool Comb " is given in 
List I. 

We have now dealt with the evolution of all the impor- 
tant textile mechanisms with the exception of the ring 
and cap frames, which may finally be briefly touched on. 

Labour, especially male labour, being very scarce in the 
United States, difficulties were encountered in working the 
heavy mules or mule-jennies needed for the produc- 
tion of certain yarns. Again, the questions of speed of 
machine and production would no doubt claim attention. 
Thus in 1832 the ring-frame was invented, this being 
readily controlled by female labour and eminently suited to 
the spinning of certain useful cotton counts. 

Other ideas of frame spinning had naturally been tried in 
the States. The Danforth or cap spindle, coming to 
Lancashire about 1825, was condemned for cotton, but 
being introduced into Yorkshire was adopted as the system 
par excellence for the spinning of fine Botany yarns. It is 
curious to relate that the first trial of this spindle in York- 
shire was made at a very slow speed " to give it a chance." 
The result was that the yarn could be jerked off the bobbin 
or spool. It was only when the bobbin was speeded up 
from 2,000 to 5,000 revolutions per minute that its possi- 
bilities were fully appreciated. 

From 1850 onwards — with the exception of the electric 
Jacquard and certain most interesting methods of pile 
weaving — no marked advances in the general form of the 
machinery employed in the textile industries are to be 
noted. Nevertheless, the improvements in details have 
been many and in some cases of/ surprising merit. 

The development of pile weaving and of pile weaving 



THE INDUSTRIES, INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS 13 

List I. — The Genesis of the Machine Wool Comb. 

HAND COMBS 

Modifications of 
Hanp Combs 



Prior to 

1800 Qartwright's 

Vertical or 

Tuft. 



1814 Collier's Card- 
Comb. 

1827 



1840 



1845 Heilinann's. 



1850 



Hawkesley's Straight Cartwright's 
with Circular Comb Horizontal 

(Continuous Slivers). Fringe. 



Donisthorpe's Me- 
chanical Hand Comb 
Frame. 



1860 



1900 Schlumberger's 

Societe Alsacienne 
etc.. Combs. 



Rawson's. 



Piatt's Circular 
Fringe. \ 



Cartwright-Donis- 
thorpe's. 



Ramsbotham's. 




Lister's Square 
Motion. 



Holden's Square 
Motion. 



Noble's. 



14 TEXTILES 

machinery may briefly be summed up as follows : The 
printed warp pile fabric was introduced by Mr. K. Whytock 
about 1832. This was followed by the Chenille Axminster 
— in which the colours were woven in — about 1839. From 
1844 to 1850 the power wiring loom was developed in the 
United States and introduced into Great Britain. From 
1856 to 1867 the power " tufting " or Axminster loom was 
developed, and finally in 1878, Lord Masham succeeded in 
weaving two pile fabrics face to face, the pile stretching 
between an under and upper ground texture being severed 
in the loom by a knife which traverses from side to side 
with this object. From 1890 to 1910 the chief innovations 
have had reference to the cutting of weft-pile fabrics in 
the loom, the introduction of the looping or cutting wires 
through the reed, thus doing away with the necessity for 
any wiring mechanism, and certain marked improvements in 
the mechanism for producing Chenille Axminster fabrics. 

Along with these developments came the factory system. 
This system was no doubt evolved by the disturb- 
ance of the balance of trade due to colonization and 
the various inventions noted. One thing reacted upon 
another, production increased production, spindle stimu- 
lated loom and loom spindle, until eventually a terrible 
strain was put upon those actually engaged in the factory, 
and in many cases humanity was sacrificed on the altar of 
increased production, most awful conditions prevailing. 
Slowly, however, the position of the worker has been 
improved both by direct and indirect legislation. Foreign 
competition has no doubt retarded still further improve- 
ments being carried into effect ; but the rapprochement of 
nations due to increased facilities for communication must 



THE INDUSTEIES, INVENTIONS AND INVENTOBS 15 



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16 TEXTILES 

inevitably lead to a levelling up and to labour ultimately 
receiving due recognition both with respect to the conditions 
under which work is done and the pecuniary benefits 
derived from such work. 

In List II., 1 the concomitant early developments of 
Mechanical Methods of Manufacture, Organization of the 
Industry and of Markets, are given. 

1 Note. — This list was given in a different form in the article on 
" Wool Combing " appearing in " Technics " for August, 1904. 



CHAPTER II 

THE WOOL, SILK, COTTON, FLAX, ETC., GROWING INDUSTRIES 

The sources of supply of raw materials must always 
claim the careful attention of spinners and manufacturers, 
even if they have not to deal with the material at first hand. 
It may be questionable if all the fluctuations in price of 
cotton, wool, etc., can be accurately gauged by the most 
careful study of the economic conditions of the supply; 
but of this we may be sure, that a sound knowledge of the 
conditions of production and consumption will in a large 
percentage of cases enable the spinner or manufacturer to 
correctly judge the situation and thus avoid mistakes which 
otherwise would most surely be made. We must not forget 
that the successful man is he who makes the fewest mistakes ! 

About a hundred years ago most wonderful advances 
were being made in both wool and cotton growing. The 
development of the Continental merino wool trade, 
followed by the still more remarkable development of the 
Colonial wool trade, and later by the development of the 
South American wool trade — these and other minor but 
important influences have resulted in changes of momentous 
issue. Cotton much earlier than wool seems to have felt 
the coming revolution, becoming acclimatized or being 
further developed in the United States of America, the East 
Indies, Peru, and later in Egypt. It is further interesting 

t. c 



18 TEXTILES 

to note that of late there has been a most decided unrest 
in cotton producing and consuming circles, resulting 
in the institution of the British Colonial Cotton Grow- 
ing Association, which is at the present date (1910) 
threatening to again revolutionize the cotton markets. 
Silk also has made a remarkable advance, owing to the 
discovery of the possibilities of reeling certain wild silk 
cocoons and therefrom making a good quality of net silk. 
None the less remarkable have been the developments in 
the waste and artificial silk industries. Flax has never 
markedly changed its centre of gravity — at least so far as 
production is concerned — this no doubt being due to its 
being one of the fibres most easily spun by hand, and hence 
having been in general use prior to the industrial era. Its 
cultivation was much more distributed up to about 1870, but 
the chief centres of flax production, Ireland, Russia, Germany, 
Holland, and Belgium, are all old established. Other 
vegetable fibres, such as China grass, Phormium Tenax, etc., 
have from time to time appeared, and it does seem as if at 
last China grass has come to stay. The following sections, 
which must only be regarded as notes, give a broad outline 
of the development of the respective industries. Perhaps 
such notes possess a value which is not diminished but rather 
accentuated through their very brevity and triteness. 

The Wool Growing Industry. — The sheep as we have it 
to-day is said to be a development, through years and years 
of selection and acclimatization, of a somewhat rough- 
haired animal, the moufflon, originally reared on the central 
plains of Asia. The evolution of the sheep was no doubt 
dependent upon the advancement in civilization of the 
peoples ultimately destined to spread not only over Asia, but 



WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GROWING INDUSTRIES 19 

Europe and Northern Africa also. It seems quite probable 
that the Arabs following the north coast of Africa into Spain, 
took the partially developed sheep with them and by their 
well-known skill and carefulness, aided by climatic con- 
ditions, ultimately produced the Spanish merino, to which 
the merino flocks of the world owe their origin either 
directly or indirectly. At the same time that this evolution 
was taking place, the Asiatic tribes who struck northward 
across the central plains of Europe possibly also took with 
them the partially developed sheep which ultimately arrived 
in England, and again owing to climatic conditions became 
what we should now term a typical mountain sheep, from 
which within comparatively recent times the world-renowned 
English breeds of sheep have been developed by careful 
selection and breeding. An idea of this development is 
given diagrammatically in List III. 

It seems more than probable that the moufflon or original 
progenitor of the sheep was black or brown, and it is 
interesting to note that there are continual reversions to 
this colour in some of our whitest and finest breeds — 
Wensleydales for example. So much has this tendency 
marked itself in certain parts of Australia that flocks of 
brown or black sheep have been established. The change 
in colour of the average sheep from brown to white is said 
to have been due to the custom of paying for shepherding 
with the white lambs dropped. This naturally led to the 
shepherds promoting the breeding of white sheep — as told 
with reference to Jacob in the Bible — with the final result 
that when the attempt was seriously made to breed pure 
white sheep success was soon achieved. 

It is reasonable to suppose that the sheep as a supplier 

c 2 



20 



TEXTILES 



- MO ■ 



t?-S 



-A * 



H S 
i— i . h 

ft - 





M o 

XJl 






1 

French 
Eambouillet. 

1 


! 


"5 6 

•a .s 








German 

Merinos. 

1 






WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GROWING INDUSTRIES 21 

of wool and mutton, was very widely distributed, and that the 
small quantities of wool produced would be spun and 
woven locally until some change upset this distributed 
equilibrium. So far as we can tell, the first change was due 
to the developed skill of the Continental workers, probably 
coming down the Ehine Valley and finally settling in 
Flanders. At least we know that the skill of the Flemish 
spinners and weavers was largely instrumental in creating 
England as a wool-growing country. The direct endeavours 
of several of the English monarchs coupled with Continental 
wars and persecutions ultimately resulted in the establish- 
ment of spinning and weaving industries in England along 
with wool growing. Nevertheless the centralization of 
industry was only partial until, as already pointed out, our 
colonization of new worlds, Continental wars, certain 
mechanical inventions, and the application of water and 
steam power gave rise to the factory system, which in its 
turn reacted upon the raw material producers and ultimately 
resulted in the development of the Cape, Australia, New 
Zealand, South America, the East Indies, etc., as the great 
wool-producing centres, although England still holds its 
own for its specially useful types of sheep. List IV. gives 
an idea of how these markets developed and at the same 
time affected the production of wool in the older wool- 
growing districts. 

It will be noticed from these lists that the most marked 
development of the Botany wool trade took place between 
1850 and 1880, coinciding with the development of combing 
machinery capable of dealing with fine short wools, and 
with the invention and development of the self-acting 
woollen mule. In fact these lists conclusively prove that 



22 TEXTILES 

the development of the growing of fine wools was largely 
dependent upon the invention of machines with which to 
work them : thus the wool comb and the self-acting mule 
were really the deciding factors. Of course woollen yarn 
had previously been spun on the "billy" and "jenny," 
and Botany wool had been combed by hand, but these being 
all hand processes were the natural but very marked limita- 
tions, and it was only when these limitations were removed 
that the most noteworthy advance was made — just as the 
development of these improved hand methods had caused a 
marked rise in wool production fifty to seventy years 
previously. 

It was the wonderful direct influence of the Australian 
climate upon the fleeces which first called attention to 
Australia as a possible fine wool-growing centre. The 
climatic conditions, however, were not the same all over the 
island continent, so that later developments have taken 
the line of heavier sheep of a greater value from a "mutton " 
point of view, with a consequent development in crossbred 
wool growing. When wool was down at a very low price 
in 1901-2, " mutton " became the chief factor in the case of 
all lands carrying crossbred or heavy sheep — as was also 
the case during these years in England. A large part 
of Australia, however, is only fitted for carrying the lighter 
merino breed, and thus will never be markedly affected by the 
frozen mutton trade. The drought of 1897-8, however, 
played havoc with these merino flocks, and a shortage of 
merino wool has resulted, which, in conjunction with the 
tendency to run off wool, owing to its poor paying results, 
and grow mutton, has finally resulted in a general shortage of 
wool and especially of fine wools. 



WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GEOWINO INDUSTRIES 23 




jo IG i. — Wools and Hairs (the horizontal divisions = 1 inch). A, Lincoln; 
B, Kent ; C, Shropshire ; D, Australian Crossbred (46's) ; E, New Zealand 
Crossbred (46's) ; E, Buenos Ayres Crossbred (46's) ; G, Australian Merino 
(70's) ; H, Buenos Ayres Merino (60's) ; I, Cape Merino (64's) ; J, Turkey 
Mohair; K, Cape Mohair ; L, Cashmere ; M, Camel's Hair ; N, White Alpaca. 
Note.— The presence or absence of grease on these natural wool staples 
has affected the colour. 

New Zealand, having a climate more akin to that of 
England, has always produced wools of the crossbred type, 
merino sheep being bred in some few districts only. 

The Cape has been a wool-producing country longer than 



24 TEXTILES 

Australia, but climatically is apparently not so suited to the 
production of wool of good type. Of late much has been 
done to improve Cape wools, and they are naturally more 
sought after ; but it seems as though it was a continual 
wrestling with nature. 

Of recent years the country which has advanced most in 
wool production is South America. Originally a common 
sort of merino wool was grown, but now, owing to careful 
breeding and selection, both fine Botany and well-developed 
crossbred and even English wools are produced. The 
wool capabilities of the South American Continent are by 
no means exhausted, and it seems a pity that we English 
failed to realize the wonderful potentialities of a country 
likely in the near future to play such an important part in 
the world's history. It is principally to this country that 
the ,£1,000 Lincoln rams are continually being exported. 

The United States of America very early attempted and 
succeeded in establishing flocks of sheep ranging from 
crossbreds to truly fine merinos, although, as already pointed 
out, they at first as colonists drew practically all their 
cloths from the mother country, and still take large 
quantities of the finer goods. That the United States is 
capable of producing a fine merino wool is proved from the 
use — rightly or wrongly — which has been made of the 
Vermont merino sheep in Australia. This use, however, 
has been made with the idea of producing a heavier fleece 
rather than a finer wool. America still buys English sheep 
and English wools, the importation of the sheep probably 
being necessary to correct the tendency to degenerate owing 
to climatic conditions. / 

Of the hairs manufactured into fabrics of various 



26 TEXTILES 

descriptions, Mohair, Alpaca, and Cashmere are the most 
important. Horsehair, Cow-hair, Babbits' fur, etc., are used 
in small quantities only and for very special purposes. 

That mohair was used in England two to three hundred 
years ago is evident from allusions to mohair fabrics made 
for example by Dryden. These fabrics, and later mohair 
yarns (hand spun), were no doubt imported from the 
emporium of the East, and it was only about 1848 that 
supplies in quantity of the raw material commenced to 
come into this country. Various restrictions were at first 
placed upon the export of the hair, but now it is an estab- 
lished trade and very considerable in bulk. More stringent 
restrictions were placed on the export of the Angora goat, 
but owing to a certain amount of vacillation flocks have 
been firmly established at the Cape and also bid fair 
to become established in San Francisco and Australia. 
Turkey mohair still maintains supremacy so far as quality 
of lustre is concerned, but Cape mohair, which, by the way, 
is clipped twice from the goat each year, now runs it very 
close. The Australian supplies are not yet of much moment, 
while the industries of the United States consume all grown 
in San Francisco. 

Alpaca comes from the Peruvian sheep or goat. This 
hair, although used in various forms for centuries by the 
inhabitants of Peru, claimed no special attention in this 
country until Sir Titus Salt discovered it and produced his 
famous " alpacas." The fibre is long and silky and in some 
respects — notably softness — is superior to mohair. Most 
of the so-called " alpacas " sold to-day are actually made of 
mohair, for, curious to relate, whjle the supplies of mohair 
have quadrupled during the past fifty years, the supplies of 



WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GKOWING INDUSTEIES 27 

alpaca have almost remained stationary, as all attempts to 
naturalize the sheep outside Peru have failed. 

Cashmere is obtained from the Cashmere goat, being the 
under-hair which is protected from the weather by a long 
coarse over-hair, and in turn no doubt serves the purpose 
of keeping the goat warm. This material came into 
notice as a useful fibre from the wonderful cashmere shawls 
which are so remarkable for their softness and fineness. 
The supplies of this material are in the hands of a select 
few and it is used for very special purposes. Soft, fine 
Botany wool is, however, frequently sold in a manufactured 
state as " cashmere." 

Camels' hair is obtained chiefly from China and Eussia. 
The coarser kinds or hairs are used for such purposes as 
camels' hair belting, while the "noil" or short soft fibre 
is used for blending with wools to yield special effects. The 
combing of this fibre, as also of Iceland wool, is very interest- 
ing, the idea frequently being to comb away the long fibres, 
leaving the " noil " — usually the least valuable part of the 
material — as a soft-handling and exceedingly useful fibre. 

Cow-hair, rabbits' fur, etc., are only used for very special 
textures. Babbits' fur, however, is used to a considerable 
extent in the felt trade. 

Before leaving the wool industry reference must be made 
to the remanufactured materials, which briefly are Noils, 
Mungo, Shoddy, and Extract. The idea of using over again 
materials which have already served for clothing must be 
very old. It was not until 1813, however, that the York- 
shire clothiers succeeded in tearing up wool rags and there- 
from producing a material capable of being spun into a fair 
yarn, especially if blended with other better materials. 



28 TEXTILES 

The operations necessary for this " grinding-up," as it is 
technically termed (although in truth the operation more 
truly consists in a teasing out), are dusting, seaming, sort- 
ing (according to quality and colour), oiling, and grinding. 
Obviously hard-spinners' waste would be most difficult to 
reduce again to a fibre state, but machines are now made 
that will grind up at least anything of wool ; cotton, how- 
ever, is another matter. The terms mungo, shoddy, and 
extract refer to the original quality of the goods from which 
these materials are produced ; mungo being produced from 
soft short wool goods, shoddy from longer and crisper wool 
goods, and extract from goods made of cotton and wool from 
which the cotton is removed by the " extracting " process, 
the remaining wool being then torn up into a fibrous mass. 

To supply this trade large quantities of rags are imported 
into this country from the Continent, the Dewsbury and 
Batley districts working up a very large proportion. Quite 
recently the Americans made a very determined attempt to 
get hold of this trade, sending representatives into the 
Dewsbury district. They have undoubtedly been successful, 
although they cannot yet treat these materials quite so 
efficiently as the Dewsbury men. Germany has also a 
remanufactured materials trade of considerable moment. 

The " noils " referred to above are the short fibres 
rejected from either English, Crossbred, or Botany wools, or 
Mohair, Alpaca, etc., during the combing operation. They 
cannot be considered as quite equal to the original material, 
although they are undoubtedly superior to mungo, shoddy, 
and extract : they may have lost a little of their elasticity, 
but their scale structure is not so/much damaged, nor are 
they so much broken up. 



WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GEO WING INDUSTBIES 29 



All these materials are either used alone or, more 
frequently, blended with better or what one might term 
" carrying materials." Cotton and mungo, for example, 
often compose the blend for a cheap but effective yarn for 
the Leeds woollen trade. 

The following tables, taken from Mr. F. Hooper's 
" Statistics of the Worsted and Woollen Trades," published 
by the Bradford Chamber of Commerce, give a bird's-eye 
view of the past and present constitution of the wool 
industry ; similar particulars respecting the other industries 
are given in the special chapters devoted to them. 

Estimate of Wool Grown in the United Kingdom 
in 1907. 







Weight 




Chief Districts. 


Sheep and Lambs. 


per 

Fleece. 


Total Weight. 




(1906.) 


lbs. 


lbs. 


Lincoln .... 


993,983 


9i 


9,442,838 


Yorks— East Riding 






419,391 


8 


3,355,128 


Devon . 






837,384 


7 


5,861,688 


Ireland 






3,714,832 


6 


22,288,992 


Somerset 






474,042 


7 


3,318,294 


Shropshire . 






484,865 


6 


2,909,190 


Sussex 






399,001 


41 


1,795,504 


Wilts . 






468,743 


4i 

2 


2,109,343 


Scotland 






6,994,338 


5 


34,971,690 


Northumberland . 






1,067,697 


6 


6,406,182 


Cumberland . 






586,432 


6 


3,518,592 


Yorks — North Riding 






683,877 


6 


4,103,262 


Yorks — West Riding 






678,876 


6 


4,073,256 


Wales . 






3,586,095 


3* 


12,551,332 


Sheep and Lambs in 1906 




29,135,192 





163,875,521 


Slaughtered . 




11,113,187 


at 3 lbs. 


33,339,561 



Net Cbp of Wool in 1907 



130,535,960 



30 



TEXTILES 



Expobts of Bkitish Wool from the United Kingdom. 
In Thousands of Lbs. 



Country. 


1901. 


1905. 


1907. 


To Eussia . 
,, Germany 
,, Holland . . . 
,, France . 
,, United States . 
,, Canada . 


63 

1,067 

829 

606 

15,949 

820 


2,869 

2,531 

962 

760 

24,806 

1,563 


4,335* 

3,417 

916 

936 

18,022 

1,662 


Totals for all j 
Countries J 


20,206 


35,252 


31,087 



* For 1906. 



Imports of Wool into the United Kingdom. 
In Thousands of Lbs. 



Country. 


1903. 


1905. 


1907. 


From France .... 
,, Turkey .... 
„ Chili .... 

,, Uruguay 

,, Argentine Eepublic 


15,781 
9,888 
16,133 
13,699 
24,150 


21,338 
13,899 
15,057 
3,143 
26,675 


24,487 
8,893 

20,704 
5,593 

40,555 


Totals from all Foreign Countries 


107,049 


111,764 


137,133 


From Cape of Good Hope 
,, British East Indies 
,, Australia 
,, New Zealand 
,, Falkland Islands . 


66,878 

32,503 

223,384 

155,127 

2,944 


58,332 

39,898 

253,373 

139,269 

3,565 


91,606 

46,717 

321,471 

158,406 

3,650 


Totals from all British Possessions 


492,452 


503,944 


622,104 


Totals - 


599,601 


615,708 


759,237 



WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GEOWING INDUSTEIES 31 

Ee-Expokt of Colonial and Foreign Wool feom the 

United Kingdom. 

In Thousands of Lbs. 



Country. 


1901. 


1905. 


1907. 


To Germany 
,, Hoiland 
,, Belgium 
,, France . 
„ Italy . 
,, United States 
,, Canada . 


79,094 
21,950 
43,219 
96,531 
664 
47,379 
2,257 


82,279 
12,580 
39,251 
60,424 
32 
78,756 
1,824 


89,136 

9,144 

57,852 

83,711 

908* 
69,889 
917* 


Totals for all ) 
Countries j 


293,063 


277,103 


312,673 



* For 1906. 




Imports of Mohair into the United Kingdom. 



Year. 


From Turkey. 


From South Africa. 




lbs. 


£ 


lbs. 


£ 


1860 


2,512,447 


378,071 


— 


— 


1865 


5,056,037 


786,915 


9,609* 


1,468* 


1870 


2,191,237 


393,996 


283,659 


47,388 


1875 


5,461,832 


753,907 


1,079,293 


89,700 


1880 


9,083,854 


943,251 


2,987,192 


227,501 


1885 


6,828,502 


607,365 


5,263,813 


305,196 


1890 


4,120,222 


230,229 


8,923,531 


402,844 


1895 


11,875,640 


787,964 


10,354,870 


492,531 


1900 


8,538,374 


596,551 


9,039,772 


606,711 


1905 


12,524,356 


807,901 


12,532,482 


779,967 


1907 


11,652,140 


780,624 


19,125,425 


1,217,178 


1908 


7,460,507 


477,344 


17,810,975 


935,702 



* The first year that South Africa exported mohair in quantity. 



32 



TEXTILES 



Imports of Alpaca, Vicuna, and Llama Wool into the 
United Kingdom. 



Year. 


From Peru. 


From Chili. 




lbs. 


& 


lbs. 


& 


1860 


2,334,048 


263,635 


520,402 


58,443 


1870 


3,324,454 


388,969 


563,782 


65,996 


1880 


1,412,365 


98,644 


890,627 


64,621 


1890 


3,114,336 


190,703 


564,606 


30,694 


1900 


4,236,566 


205,839 


1,148,694 


51,116 


1907 


4,665,738 


251,236 


356,068 


22,452 


1908 


4,309,912 


257,215 


515,754 


26,968 



Total European and American Wool Imports. 



— 


1901. 


1H03. 


1905. 


1907. 


Australasian . 
Cape 


Bales. 

1,745,000 
217,000 


Bales. 

1,451,000 
234,000 


Bales. 
1,633,000 
209,000 


Bales. 
2,103,000 
287,000 


Total Colonial . 
River Plate 


1,962,000 
532,000 

2,494,000 


1,685,000 
558,0C0 


1,842,000 
488,000 


2,390,000 
478,000 


Total 


2,243,000 


2,330,000 


2,868,000 



The Silk Growing Industry. — At one time this industry 
was practically limited to China and Japan, in which 
countries the silkworm was rigorously guarded. Some 
missionaries, however, in the year 552 managed to bring 
some eggs to Constantinople, and eventually the industry 
was firmly established upon the north shores of the 
Mediterranean. Various attempts have been made to 
establish the industry elsewhere. Attempts, for instance, 
were made to acclimatize the worm in Ireland, and at the 
present moment a certain amount of success seems to be 



WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GEO WING INDUSTKIES 33 

attained in Australia; but rival industries or the unskilful- 
ness of the rearers seem to prevent the attainment of any 
success of practical value. The United States, perhaps, 
may be regarded as exceptional in this respect. Not only 
have they developed their own breeds, but they have estab- 
lished a most complete silk industry from the worm to the 
finished product. 

The most remarkable development in the silk industry 
was brought about in 1877 by Lord Masham, who, after 
many failures, succeeded in producing cheaply and success- 
fully utilizing a most useful silk yarn from waste silks — old 
cocoons, brushings from the outside of the cocoons, throwing 
waste, etc. This development naturally lead to the utiliza- 
tion of wild silk, as tons of these pierced or spoilt cocoons 
— supposed to be unworkable — were available. Thus was 
developed the remarkable trade known as the " spun silk 
trade." Curious to relate, however, the latest discovery is 
that many of these wild silk cocoons can be reeled, as will 
be further explained in Chapter XV. The supplies of wild 
silks are not yet exhausted, as news is just to hand of the 
discovery of wonderful nests of cocoons in Africa (Congo 
State), arrangements for the exploitation of which are only 
just being made. 

" Net " silk (silk threads reeled directly from the cocoon) 
comes to us in the form of what is known as " singles," a 
thread composed of just a few strands — say six. In the 
English " throwing mills " several of these singles are 
thrown together to make up a thread of the required thick- 
ness, with little twist if for weft, or, as it is termed, " tram," 
and much twist if for warp, or, as it is termed, " organ- 
zine " (see Fig. 21). 

T. D 



34 TEXTILES 

Waste silk is received in this country in three other 
forms, viz., wild cocoons, waste silk in the gum, and waste 
silk discharged. All these forms are, however, worked up 
on the same principle, which will be described later. 

The Cotton Industry. — The cotton industry seems to be of 
Asiatic origin, and appears to have appertained more 
particularly to the Mahometan religion, as we hear of 
Mahomet going about with the Koran in one hand, a sword 
in the other, and a cotton shirt upon his back. As already 
pointed out, flax, being a material more readily spun, would 
naturally claim first attention. It seems probable, however, 
that India was unsuitable for flax cultivation, while the 
cotton plant was evidently indigenous. Thus attempts 
would no doubt be made to utilize this very nice-looking 
fibre, and eventually cloths very suitable for the Indian 
climate would be produced. These fabrics being shipped 
to Europe no doubt ultimately resulted in the cotton trade 
being established in various centres, but only on a very 
small scale. It was, as we have already seen, the 
mechanical era which gave life to the cotton trade and 
resulted in the development of the cotton-growing industry 
in the United States, the West Indies, Peru, the Sea Islands, 
Egypt, and later — under the auspices of the British Cotton 
Growing Association — in Africa. Our chief supplies of 
cotton still come from the United States. Egypt and the 
Sea Islands send us long-stapled cottons suitable for the 
Bradford trade, while Peru supplies us with a woolly cotton 
very suitable for blending with short wools for the Leeds 
and district trade. 

In Fig. 3 the chief varieties of cotton are illustrated. 



WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GEOWING INDUSTRIES 35 




WEST AFRICAN. Gambia. 

from American seed. 




WEST AFRICAN. Lagos. 





INDIAN. Oomrawattee. 



INDIAN. Bengal. 





INDIAN. Broach. 



INDIAN. Tinnivelly. 



ElG. 3. — The Cotton Fibres of Commerce. Scale, \ inch to 1 inch. 
Arranged and photographed by F. W. Barwick, Esq., of the 
Research Laboratories, Imperial Institute. 

D 2 



36 



TEXTILES 





BRAZILIAN. Ceara. 



BRAZILIAN. Pernam. 





BARBADOS. Sea Island. 



EGYPTIAN. Abassi. 





NYASSALAND. Egyptian. 



EQYPTIAN. Mltaflfl. 



Fjg, 3, — The Cotton Fibres of Commerce. Scale, £ inch to 
1 inch — continued. 



WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GROWING INDUSTRIES 37 





EGYPTIAN. Vannovitch. 



PERUVIAN. Smooth. 




PERUVIAN. Rough. 




PERUVIAN. Sea Island. 





AMERICAN. Carolina Sea Island. 



AMERICAN, Georgia Sea Island. 



Eig. 3. — The Cotton Fibres of Commerce. Scale, \ inch to 
1 inch — continued. 



38 



TEXTILES 





AMERICAN. Florida Sea Island. 



AMERICAN.- Texas. 




AMERICAN. Upland. 




Fig. 3. 



-The Cotton Fibres of Commerce. 
1 inch — continued. 



CHINESE. 

Scale, -| inch to 



The cotton-growing countries of the world are shown in 
Fig. 4, from which it will be noted that practically the torrid 
zone is the cotton zone. Of course soil and other conditions 
in part determine whether cotton can he grown, but it is 
evident that much heat is desirable and even necessary, 
and, as a consequence, that the best available labour is 
black labour. The United States has its "black belt," 
and in our attempts to grow cotton in our Colonies — and in 
the case of French Colonies also — it seems as though we 
must be largely dependent upon Mack labour. 

The cotton fibre is produced on three varieties of plants, 



40 



TEXTILES 



viz., Gossypium Barbadense, or the true Sea Island cotton 
plant, which, yielding the best type of cotton, is the original 
basis of much American, Egyptian, and Indian cottons; 
Arboreum or tree cotton, yielding a rougher cotton, coming 
to us from Brazil and Peru ; and Herbaceum, or the variety 
of the ordinary cotton plant from which American cotton is 
largely produced. 



The Flax Growing Industry. — The flax fibre is one of the 
oldest fibres of which we have any records. The Biblical 
references to flax (or linen) are numerous, and remnants 
of old linen fabrics are frequently coming to light in the 
exploration of the sites of the older civilizations. The writer 
has just been asked to analyse some linen fabrics dating 
back some 2,000 to 3,000 years 
results : — 



The following are the 



Analysis of Mummy Cloths. 





To-day's 














Cloth. 


No. 1. 


No. 2. 


No. 3. 


No. 4. 


No. 5. 




Linen. 












Weight per yard, 














54 x 36 . 


8 ozs. 


12^ ozs. 


12| ozs. 


10-;} ozs. 


10| ozs. 


llf ozs. 


Counts of warp . 


V335 


1/20-7 


V10-3 


V32-7 


V21-8 


\'29a 




linen 




linen 




linen 


linen 


Counts of weft . 


V31's 


V16's 


VIO's 


V33-3 


!/18-4 


723-83 




linen 


linen 


linen 


linen 


linen 


linen 


Threads per inch 


46 


60 


28 


84 


50 


80 


-icks per inch 


43 


21 


18 


37 


25 


27 


Strength of warp 














(single thread) . 


30-72 ozs. 


— 


2*77 ozs. 


— 


1*31 ozs. 


l - 65ozs. 


31asticity of warp 














(single thread) 


•36" 


— 


•272" 


— 


•524" 


•478" 


Strength of weft 














(single thread) . 


31 - 66 ozs. 


— 


5 - 01 ozs. 


— 


6-23 ozs. 


1*7 ozs. 


31asticity of weft 






7 -374" 








(single thread) 


•472" 




— 


•288" 


3-34" 



WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GROWING INDUSTRIES 41 

The flax fibre, coming as it does from the stem of the 
flax plant, naturally requires very different climatic con- 
ditions as compared with the cotton fibre. Although its 
cultivation is still very dispersed, the chief flaxes are 
Irish, Belgian, Dutch, German, and Kussian. The stems 
when ripe are cut somewhat after the fashion of corn, 
place* in the dam to rot or " ret," as it is termed, dried 
and " scutched," this latter operation resulting in the 
cortical or non-fibrous matter being separated from the 
fibrous matter. Dew retting is practised on the Continent, 
and sometimes chemical retting also ; but whichever 
system is adopted, the idea is simply to separate the 
fibres from the cortical and pith-like substance with which 
they are enveloped with as little damage to strength, 
length, and colour as possible. Many substitutes for flax 
have come forward from time to time, but none have stood 
the test, with the possible exception of cotton, which seems 
to have made considerable encroachments during the past 
few years. China grass or Kamie may in the future have 
some influence on the flax industry, but it has hardly yet 
been felt. 

Other Vegetable Fibres. — It is useful to obtain a general 
idea of all the vegetable fibres, as one cannot foretell which 
type is likely to come more markedly into use, or what 
particular type of plant is likely to yield a fibre suitable for 
special and up-to-date requirements. 1 In List V. the origins 
of the various " vegetable hairs " are given. In List VI. 
the physical compositions of the vegetable fibres are given. 

1 The use of Sisal hemp in the place of horsehair by the Italians is a 
case in point. 



42 



TEXTILES 



List VII. is a practically complete list of the vegetable hairs 
and fibres. 

List V. — Vegetable Hairs. 



Origin. 



Entirely covering, or in 
part covering the seed 

Contained in the flower . 
Lining interior of fruit . 
Twigs and leaves . 



Natural Order. 



r Malvaceae 
| Asclepiadacese 
' Apocynacese 
l^CEnotheracese 
I Typhacese 
1 Cyperacese 

Bornbacese 

f Filices 
( Muscinese 



Typical Example. 



Cotton. 

Madar Fibre of India. 

Periwinkle. 

Willow-Herb. 

Bullrush. 

Cotton Grass. 
f Horse-chestnut. 
I Eed Silk Cotton of India. 

Ferns. 

Peat-moss Fibre. 



List VI. — Vegetable Fibres. 

(a) Fibees formed oe Single Cells : 

Baniie — disintegrated. 

China Grass— disintegrated. 

Flax — disintegrated {i.e., too far retted). 

(b) Fibres associated in Bundles : 

Jute — unbleached. 

Flax. 

Deccan Hemp. 

Eamie — not disintegrated. 

Hemp— well prepared. 

(c) Fibres together with Medullary Bay Cells 

Sisal Hemp. 

(d) Fibres together with Parenchyma Cells : 

Sunn Hemp. 

Mudar Fibre of India. 

(e) Fibres and Vessels: 

Phormium tenax or New Zealand Flax. 

Musa or Manila Hemp. 

Ananas or Pineapple and Banana Fibre. 



WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GROWING INDUSTRIES 43 

List VII. — Complete List of Vegetable Hairs 
and Fibres. 



Technical 

Name. 



Local or General Name and 
Location. 



Cotton. 



Kapok 

Seraal . 
Silky Cotton 



Vegetable 

Silks 



Flax 
Hemp 



"White Kope 
Fibre 



Flax-like 

Fibres 

Flax and 
Henip Sub- 
stitutes 

Jute . 



1. Tree Cotton . 

2. American, African, and 

Indian Cotton 
2a. Sea Island Cotton . 
2b. Peruvian or Brazil 

Cotton 

3. Asiatic Cotton 

White Silk Cotton of East 

Indies 
Red Silk Cotton of India 
Down Tree of Armenia and 

Jamaica 
White Silk Cotton Tree of 

India 
" Mudar " or " Yercum " of 

India 
Of Bengal .... 
" Yachan " of the Argentine 
Flax or " Lin " . 
Sunn Hemp 

Sisal of India and Queens- 
land 
Manila Hemp 
Sisal Heneopien or Yucatan 

Hemp. (An aloe) 
Chinese Hemp 
Common Hemp . 
Rajmahel Hemp of Northern 

India 
Bombay or Manila Aloe of 

America and East India 
Istle of Mexico . 
Maritius Hemp of South 

America 
Buaze Fibre of Guinea and 

Nileland, etc. 
Siberian Perennial Flax 

( Spanish Broom . 
C Kendu Fibre . 

Jute of India and China 



Scientific Name. 



Gossypium arboreum. 
,, Barbadense. 

,, maritimum, etc. 

, , acuminata. 

,, herbaceum. 

Eriodendron Anfractu. 

Bombax Malabaricum. 
Ochroma Lagopus. 

Cochlospermum Gossypium. 

Calatropis gigantea. 
,, procera. 

Beauruontea grandiflora. 
Chorisia insignis. 
Linum usitatisstun. 
Crolalaria juncea. 
Sida rhombifolia. 

Musa textilis. 
J Agave rigida. 
(Var. longifolia. 
Abutilon, etc. 
Cannabis sativa. 
Marsdenia tenacissima. 

Agave vivipara. 

, , heteracantha. 
Fureroea gigantea. 

Securidnea longipedum culata. 

Linum perenne. 

Spartum junceum. 
Apocynum Venetum. 

Corchorus capsularis. 



44 



TEXTILES 



List VII. — Complete List of Vegetable Haiks 
and Fibres — continued. 



Technical 
Name. 



Local or Genei'al Name and 
Location. 



Scientific Name. 



Jute . 



Jute-like 

Fibres 
China Grass 



Nettle Fibres 



Palm Leaf 
Fibres 



Special 

Fibres 



Hibiscus or 
Mallows 



Jute of Calcutta . 

,, America . 

,, West Africa . 
Fibre from Lagos 

Tcbon Ma (Temperate Zone) 
Kamie or Bhea (Torrid Zone) 
Canada Nettle Fibre . 
Tashiari (Himalayas) . 
Nilgiri Nettle 

Ban-Surat of India and 

Ceylon 
Ban-Bhea of Assam . 
Urera Fibre of Natal . 
Mamaki of Pacific Islands 
Bere of Pacific Islands 
Oil Palm Fibre . 

Gri-gri Fibre of West Indies 
Baffia of Madagascar and 

Africa 
Corogo Fibre of Cuba 
Plantain and Banana Fibre 

Pineapple Fibre of East 

India 
Caraguata of Paraguay 
Pingum of Jamaica and 

America 
Silk Grass of Jamaica and 

Tobago 
Madaguxar Piassava . 
Deccan Hemp. Also known 

as Kanaff and Ambari 

Hemp 

Okro 

Boyelle or Bed Sorelle t 
Maboltine (Africa and 

America) 



Corchorus Olitorius. 
Abutilon Avicennse. 
Honckenya ficifolia. 
Honckenya ficifolia. 

Boelimeria nivea. 
Variatum tenacissima. 
Laportea Canadensis. 
Debregeasin Hypolenca. 
Girondina heterophylla. 
Maontia purga. 
Laportea crenulata. 

Villebrunea intergrifolia. 
Urera tenax. 
Pipturus albidus. 
Cypholobus macroceplialus. 
Eloesis Guineensis. 

Astrocary. 
Baphia Buffia. 

Acrocomia Lasiospatha. 
Musa sapientium var. para- 

disiaca. 
Ananas sativa. 

Bromelia Argentina. 



Bromelias or Furcroea Cubensis 

Diety osperwa Piassava. 
Hibiscuis Cannabinus. 



,, esculentus. 

, , Sabdariff a. 

Abutilon periplocifolium. 



WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GROWING INDUSTRIES 45 



List VII. — Complete List of Vegetable Hairs 
and Fibres — continued. 



Technical 

Name. 



Ilibiscua.or 

Mallows 



Leguminous 
Order 



Bowstring 
Hemps 



Local or General Name and 
Location. 



Ban-ochra of India, or 
"Toza" Fibre of West 
Africa 

Indian Mallow Hemp . 

Dhunchi Hemp of Assam . 

Ka Hemp of China and 

Japan 
Main Fibre of India and 

Ceylon 
Konje Hemp of Zambezi, etc. 



Pangane Hemp of Pangane 
Neyanda of Ceylon 
Ife Hemp of South Africa . 
Moorva of India . 
Somali Land Fibre 



Scientific Name. 



Urena lobata. 

Abutilon Aviccnnse. 
Sesbama aculeata. 

Pueraria Thunbergiana. 

Banhima Vahlii. 

Sansevicra Guinensis. 



longiflora. 

Kukii. 

Zeylanica. 

cylindrica. 

B oxburgh iana. 

Ehrenbertm. 



The average lengths, practical and actual, and the average 
diameters of the principal vegetable fibres are given in 
List VIII. In Fig. 5 the countries producing the more 
important vegetable fibres not specially dealt with here are 
indicated. The only fibres in these lists which call for 
special comment are hemp, jute, and the two forms of 
China grass. 

Jute is the fibre from what is essentially a torrid zone 
plant and is largely used in the carpet industry for sackings, 
while hemp is not quite so much of a torrid zone plant and 
is more particularly used for ropes, especially for shipping, 
as it sinks in the water, while ropes of some other materials 



46 



TEXTILES 



do not sink so readily and are thus dangerous to small boats 
passing by. 

List VIII. — Working Lengths and Average Diameters of 
the Principal Vegetable Fibres (in inches). 



Name. 


Working 
Length. 


Average Diamete 


"S. 






inches. 




inches. 




1. 


Agave Americana or Sisal 
Henip. Agave rigida var. 
Sisalana (True Sisal hemp) 


36—60 


ifcr- 


- gV average 


1 

T30" 


2. 


Ananassa or Banana Fibre. 
Ananas Sativa (Pineapple 
Fibre) 


18-72 


53 0" ~~ 


" 2ST5 >> 


dttf 


3. 


Boehrueria Nivea or China 
Grass 


up to 11 


T^W" 


_ 1 


SST7 


4. 


Boehmeria tenacissima or 
Ramie 


ditto 




ditto 




5. 


(a) Common Hemp 


48—84 


1 


1 


1 




\h) Piedmontese or Giant 


up to 144 


TSFTT 


— "ffTTO" >> 


TTJjJO" 




Hemp 










6. 


Corchorns olitorius or Jute. 


60—120 


TbW~ 


-?JT> ,, 


TlW 


7. 


Crotalaria juncea or Sunn 
Hemp 


72—144 


iJTfW" 


~ S3T7 >) 


T3W 


8. 


Linum usitatissimum or 
Flax 


24—36 


TSBTF" 


"""SffO" >> 


TO^TTT 


9. 


Musa textilis or Manila 
Hemp 


up to 60 


SVU~ 


. 1 
33" 




10 


Phormium tenax or New 
Zealand Flax 


36—132 


srxs - 


-A » 


1 
TIT? 



China grass {Boehmeria nivea) has so often been to the 
fore as a newly discovered fibre and so often proved a 
failure that one hesitates to speak of it. The Chinese, 
however, make such magnificent textures from this fibre 
that its prospects cannot be regarded as other than hopeful. 
Whether the Indian form of the fibre, ramie (Boehmeria 
tenacissima) as it is frequently called, will ever yield such 
a plastic wonderful yarn and fabric as the Chinese get from 



48 TEXTILES 

China grass (Boehmeria nivea) still remains to be seen. 
Certainly the possible need for indigo planters turning their 
attention to growths other than indigo should at least favour 
a really serious trial. The gums in China grass are the 
greatest difficulty, necessitating its being prepared in a way 
entirely different from linen ; when it is satisfactorily 
prepared it is so silky that waste silk machinery is the 
most suitable for dealing with it. 

At the present moment a great revival in the New 
Zealand flax {Phormium tenax) industry is taking place. 
Whether success will attend the endeavours being made 
remains to be seen, but of this we may be certain, that 
there are still many fibres only partially exploited, and 
many which have not even been touched, which in the 
future are undoubtedly destined to play a useful part. 

Notes on the Chemical and Physical Structures of the Fibres. 

— The textile fibres of commerce naturally group themselves 
into six well-defined groups, viz., the animal fibres, the vege- 
table fibres, the animal-vegetable or insect fibres, the mineral 
fibres, the remanufactured fibres, and the artificial fibres. 

Of the first class the normal wool fibre may be taken as 
representative. It is composed of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, 
hydrogen, and sulphur, 1 and when burnt emits a disagree- 
able odour largely due to the liberation of ammonia, 
which serves to distinguish it from cotton and most other 
fibres. It does not burn with a flash, as does cotton, but 
rather shrivels away, leaving a bead of burnt matter. 
Wool has marked powers of causing dissociation of certain 
metallic salts, this forming the basis of the mordanting of 

1 In what manner these elements are combined chemists are still 
uncertain. 



WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GEO WING INDUSTKIES 49 



iMfcUrtMMlafafctad 



rMrtk&tl.VtoU&lttW&lSS** 





X 



.2 <^ 

-I-' 

pi 

5= Ph 






«l-q 



r2^s 



JH CD 

6X3 fn n 

rH I 5 
2 £r3 



O' 



r<s 



wools prior to dyeing. It is open to doubt as to whether the 
action of dyeing is entirely a chemical or partly a physical 
action. In the case of indigo dyeing, for example, there 
seem marked indications that the action is purely physical. 



50 TEXTILES 

On the other hand, this cannot he said with the same 
certainty of most other dyes. Physically, the most remark- 
able thing about wool is its exterior scale structure (clearly 
shown in Fig. 6), to which it partially owes its felting pro- 
perty, and to which in part wool cloths owe their strength. 
Various qualities of wools have this exterior scale structure 
developed in different degrees, and as a rule those with the 
scales most marked " felt " the most easily, although there 
are exceptions to this rule, curliness and probably internal 
structure playing some part. Hairs only show more or 
less faint indications of the scale structure, and conse- 
quently do not felt so readily. Upon the other hand, they 
are usually more lustrous, their uncorrugated and unbroken 
surface reflecting the light intact. In fineness wool fibres 
vary from 5 Jq to 3<yoo °^ an mcn i n diameter, but there 
is no well-defined relationship between fineness and length, 
although the Bradford quality numbers — now practically 
universal — such as 30's, 40's, 50's, 60's, 70's, etc., no 
doubt suppose some general coincidence between length 
and fineness of fibre. A year's growth in length may 
equal anything from 1 or 2 inches to 12 or 16 inches, a 
fair average being 7 to 8 inches. Wool, however, if left 
undipped, will grow sometimes to 40 inches in length, 
and fleeces are on record weighing 57 lbs. The length 
of the wool fibre, as will be demonstrated later, largely 
determines the method of preparing and spinning it into 
yarn. 

Of the second class, cotton is the most representative of 
the " seed-hairs." It is nearly pure cellulose, the formula 
for which is Ce H10 5 . Flax and the other " stem-fibres," 
while largely composed of cellulose, are much less pure 



WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GROWING INDUSTRIES 51 

in composition, and in many cases by their very impuri- 
ties may be distinguished from one another (see List VI.). 

Physically, cotton appears to take the form of a flattened, 
collapsed, twisted tube ; in fact its form is best suggested 
by a thin indiarubber tube out of which the air has been 
drawn. If unripe, the characteristic feature of twist is 
absent, and the cotton neither dyes well nor does it spin 
to advantage. In length the cotton fibre varies from \ 
of an inch to If inches and in diameter averages about 
T5£¥ °f an inch. Fig. 7 illustrates some interesting 
features respecting the structure of the cotton fibre. 

The chief characteristic of flax as viewed under the 
microscope is the appearance of nodes, these, no doubt, 
being limitations of growths. Flax may readily be 
recognized by the property it possesses of developing 
curious cross striations when treated with nitric acid and 
then sulphuric acid and iodine. Most of the vegetable 
fibres may be recognized by some special chemical reaction. 
Thus jute, for example, may be distinguished from flax, 
etc., by the action of an acidulated alcoholic solution of 
phloroglucine, flax being unchanged, while jute is stained 
an intense red. 

Of the third class silk is the representative fibre. In 
most of its chemical reactions silk is akin to wool, but 
there are differences which enable the dyer to cross-dye 
silk and wool goods — i.e., to dye the silk one colour and 
the wool another colour, although there are obvious 
limitations in this respect. The silk fibre consists of two 
distinct parts, a central portion and a coating of sub- 
stances readily removable by hot water, termed the " silk 
gum." The central portion or " fibroin " has approximately 

b2 



52 



TEXTILES 



the composition : Ci 5 H23 N 5 06. The silk gum, which 
often forms as much as 20 to 30 per cent, of the natural 
silk fibre, is usually boiled off, and only too often weighting 
added, which has a deleterious action on the wearing 




Figs. 7 and 8. — Micrographs of Cotton Fibres : (a) unripe fibre, 
(b) ripe fibre, (c) mercerized fibre. Micrograph of Silk Fibre : 
(d) illustrates the twofold character of the silk fibre and the 
splitting and expansion of the fibrils which occur in some Tussah 

Silks. 



qualities of the silk. Why silk should so readily weight- 
up does not entirely admit of a satisfactory explanation. 
It is, of course, a most expensive fibre, and as weighting 
agents cost Is. per lb. and as silk sell at 12s., weighting 
naturally pays well. Physically, silk may be defined as a 



WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GEOWING INDUSTEIES 53 

long fibre (cocoons contain from 400 to 1,500 yards) of a 
twofold character, this being due to the silk fluid issuing 
from a gland on each side of the silkworm, the ducts 
from these uniting in the head of the worm. Under 
the microscope the fibre appears more as a glassy rod of 
fairly round form (Fig. 8), but from time to time the two- 
fold character is perceptible in following along the fibre. 
In fineness it is from 5^ to x^oo of an inch, the finer 
being the cultivated silks and the coarser the wild silks. A 
peculiar feature of the wild tussah silks is that upon the 
fibre being cut it breaks up into a number of fibrils, 
forming a bush-like end. This makes the fibre specially 
suitable for the production of plushes. 

The mineral fibres are principally glass, tinsel, and 
asbestos. As they are of very limited application, their 
chemical composition and physical qualities need not be 
fully discussed here. Glass naturally partakes of the 
qualities of ordinary glass, but is much more flexible than 
would be naturally supposed. Tinsel is made from copper, 
aluminium, and other metals drawn out, and partakes 
naturally of the qualities of the metals from which it is 
made. Asbestos possesses characteristics which cannot 
be well defined on paper. As woven into cloth it is 
irregular, lumpy, soft, and plastic. It is naturally mostly 
employed next to heated surfaces, for firemen's jackets, etc. 

The remanufactured fibres can only claim distinctive 
treatment from the physical point of view. They mostly 
consist of animal fibres which have been broken up in 
length and the scale structure of which has been partially 
damaged. The important quality of elasticity has also been 
seriously interfered with. 



54 TEXTILES 

The artificial fibres are of such importance that it has 
been deemed advisable to devote a special chapter to them. 

Notes on the Effects of Chemical Re-agents on the Textile 
Fibres. — The effects of even simple re-agents are so marked 
and so diverse that it is very necessary to have an accurate 
and extensive knowledge of such under all the varying 
conditions obtaining in practice. For instance, boiling 
water will disintegrate and weaken wool while it strengthens 
cotton. Again, sulphuric acid and caustic soda have very 
different actions on the cotton and wool fibres. Sulphuric 
acid with heat may be employed to disintegrate the cotton out 
of a cotton and wool fabric, while caustic soda may equally 
well be employed to dissolve the wool from the cotton. 
Cold strong caustic soda, however, may be employed to 
mercerize the cotton in wool and cotton goods without 
detriment to the wool. It is thus evident that absolute 
knowledge based upon incontrovertible experience is neces- 
sary if mistakes are to be avoided and the best results 
obtained. 



CHAPTEE III 

the mercerized and artificial fibres employed in 
the textile industries 

Mercerized Cotton. 

The term mercerization is now applied to a process by 
means of which cotton yarn or cloth is rendered lustrous and 
silky in appearance, and the importance of the process has 
made enormously rapid development since its introduction in 
1895. The production of lustre is accompanied by con- 
siderable modifications in the structural appearance, chemical 
character, and dyeing properties of the fibre, and these 
latter effects of mercerization were first noticed and 
investigated by John Mercer in 1844. 

Mercerization without lustre is carried out by steeping the 
dry cotton in a cold concentrated solution of caustic soda 
(NaOH50° to 60° Tw.) for a few moments, and then well 
washing to remove the alkali. This changes the micro- 
scopic appearance of the individual cotton fibres from that 
of flattened spiral tubes with thin walls and a relatively 
large central cavity to that of more or less cylindrical non- 
spiral tubes with thick walls. The effect in mass of this 
modification of the fibre is that the threads contract in 
length, become somewhat thicker, and much stronger ; the 
dyeing properties being also much modified. Chemically 
the process results in the formation of a definite chemical 



56 TEXTILES 

compound of cellulose and caustic soda (CeHioCVNaOH) in 
a state of hydration. On washing, this is decomposed, the 
alkali being removed and the cellulose regenerated as a 
hydrate (C6Hi O 5 "H 2 O) which permanently retains the 
altered appearance and properties above noted. 

The natural shrinkage thus brought about is made use 
of in the production of crepon effects on mixed cotton and 
wool fabrics. 

Lustreing by mercerization is obtained by a very slight 
modification of Mercer's original process ; the shrinkage of 
the yarn or cloth which would naturally take place being 
prevented by mechanical means. 

" Mercerization " may also be brought about by the use 
of substances other than caustic soda, e.g., sulphuric, nitric, 
or phosphoric acid or zinc chloride ; the use of these being 
mentioned in Mercer's original patent. Sodium sulphide 
has also been proposed, but none of these bodies are of any 
practical importance in this connection. 

The Process. — The essentials of the process are very 
simple, but for economical and efficient working the follow- 
ing points require attention : — (1) The caustic soda solution 
should be used at a strength of about 55° Tw. and as cold 
as possible without artificial cooling ; (2) the material 
must be thoroughly and uniformly impregnated; (3) the 
material must be kept in a state of uniform tension until 
the washing has decomposed the alkali cellulose ; (4) as 
much of the caustic soda as possible must be recovered ; 
(5) the cotton must be of long staple and the threads must 
not be too tightly twisted. 

Many different mercerizing machines have been intro- 
duced, and their relative success depends upon the degree 



MEECEEIZED AND ARTIFICIAL FIBRES 51 

to which they satisfy conditions Nos. 2, 3, and 4 specified 
above, and are economical as regards output and labour 
required. The soda recovery apparatus is another import- 
ant feature of a modern mercerizing plant. In this the 
wash waters are evaporated to mercerizing strength, and 
the recovered soda is treated with lime to recausticize 
the portion which has been converted into carbonate during 
the various operations. 

Bleaching and Mercerizing. — If cotton is bleached after 
mercerization the process of bleaching does not destroy the 
lustre of the mercerized fibre ; but this sequence of opera- 
tions offers no advantage, and the maximum lustre is always 
obtained when the material is subjected to as little treat- 
ment as possible after mercerization. Treatment with 
bleaching powder after mercerizing is also liable to rot 
the fibre by oxidation. 

The Dyeing of Mercerized Cotton. — It has already been 
mentioned that mercerized cotton has a much greater 
affinity for many mordants and dyes than the untreated 
fibre. The effect is greatest in the case of cotton mercerized 
without tension, and diminishes somewhat as the tension 
is increased, being least marked in fully lustred cotton. 
The difference in the chemical properties of mercerized and 
unmercerized cotton is the main cause of their different 
behaviour in dyeing, but structural or physical change has 
also a considerable effect. 

Irregular mercerization is a frequent cause of irregular 
dyeing, and special precautions must be taken when the 
cotton is subsequently to be dyed in pale shades. Some 
further information regarding the dyeing properties of 
mercerized cotton will be found in the next chapter, p. 80. 



58 TEXTILES 

Crimp effects on Cotton are obtained by mercerizing cotton 
cloth in stripes or other patterns by a printing process, the 
natural shrinkage of the mercerized portion producing the 
crimp. If printed and mercerized under tension, lustre 
patterns may be obtained on cotton cloth. 

Crepon effects on Union Cloth. — Wool fibre is practically 
unaffected by caustic soda of mercerizing strength, and if 
suitably woven with cotton and the fabric mercerized, the 
shrinkage of the cotton throws up the wool into loops or 
knots. Silk-cotton unions may be similarly treated, but 
require great care in manipulation. 

The Schreiner Finish. — This process of increasing the 
lustre of cotton is so closely connected with mercerizing 
lustre from the practical standpoint that mention should 
here be made of it. It consists in subjecting cotton cloth to 
the action of an engraved steel roller under great pressure. 
The engraving consists of very fine serrations, numbering 
400 to 700 per inch, and these produce optically reflecting 
surfaces upon the threads which very greatly enhance the 
lustre of the material. Cotton lustred by mercerization 
and subsequently treated with the Schreiner calender rivals 
silk in appearance. 

The Production of Mercerized Cotton is by far the most 
important recent development in the textile trade, having 
practically enriched it with a new fibre almost as lustrous 
as silk, and of course much less costly. One of the main 
defects of mercerized cotton is that its lack of elasticity 
renders fabrics made from it very liable to crease. 

Test for Mercerized Cotton. — A solution of iodine in 
saturated potassium iodide solution colours both ordinary 
and mercerized cotton a deep brown. On washing with 



MEE0EE1ZED AND AETIFICIAL EIBEES 59 

water, mercerized cotton changes to a blue black, which fades 
very slowly on long washing, whereas ordinary cotton 
rapidly becomes white on washing. 

Artificial Silk. 

The silk fibre, consisting of the solidified fluid of the 
silk glands of the worm, is devoid of cellular structure. 
Wool and cotton, on the other hand, are highly organized 
fibres from the structural standpoint, being composed of a 
vast number of individual cells built up in a definite and 
orderly manner. It is thus impossible to conceive of the 
mechanical production of a fibre resembling wool or cotton 
in character ; but in its broadest outline the problem of the 
production of a fibre similar to silk is not a difficult one. 
The problem involves two main features — first, the 
production of a viscous liquid analogous to that naturally 
existing in the silkworm glands, and, secondly, the 
mechanical conversion of this into thin fibres. 

The second part of the problem offers no insuperable 
difficulties ; in fact artificial silk fibres are now produced 
which are much finer than those of natural silk (Thiele 
silk). 

The composition of the viscous liquid may be chemically 
similar to natural silk or may be of an entirely different 
character. The first artificial filament which resembled 
silk in appearance was spun glass, from which fabrics of 
brilliant lustre and considerable softness may be produced. 
These are, however, of little value, since the fabric rapidly 
disintegrates on account of the brittle nature of the fibre./ 
Vanduara Silk is obtained by using gelatine as a basis, 
the threads, after spinning, being treated with formaldehyde 



60 TEXTILES 

to render them insoluble in water. It is a beautifully 
lustrous fibre, and fairly strong and elastic in the dry 
condition, but if wetted it becomes extremely tender. It is 
now little, if at all, used. 

Gelatine may also be rendered insoluble by the combined 
action of chromic acid and light, and this has formed the 
basis of an artificial silk process ; but no practical success 
has been achieved on these lines. 

Cellulose Silk. — All the commercially produced artificial 
silks are obtained by using some form of cellulose as a 
basis, and amongst these may be mentioned the De Char- 
doiinet, Pauly, Lehner, Vivier, Thiele, Steam and Bronnert 
silks, which are also known under such names as " Collodion 
silks," " Glauzstoff" " Lustro-cellidose," and " Viscose silk." 

Cellulose, the chemical basis of cotton, linen, wood, and 
the structural portion of vegetable growth generally, is 
chemically a very inert substance, and only two or three 
ways of dissolving it are known. 

(1) When converted into nitro-cellulose by treatment 
with nitric acid it becomes soluble in alcohol-ether. The 
various " collodion " silks are thus produced. 

(2) Cellulose is soluble in a concentrated solution of zinc 
chloride, or 

(3) In an ammoniacal solution of oxide of copper. 

(4) If cotton is mercerized with caustic soda and 
treated with carbon disulphide while still saturated with 
the alkali, it forms a new chemical compound (cellulose 
thiocarbonate) which is soluble in water and is known as 
" viscose." 

(5) Acetates of cellulose may be produced which are 
soluble in various solvents. 



MEECEEIZED AND AETIFICIAL EIBEEB 61 

Each of the first four methods of dissolving cellulose 
forms the basis of a commercial process for manufacturing 
artificial silk. 

(1) Collodion Silk. — This was the original artificial 
silk, and was first patented by De Chardonnet in 1886. 
After surmounting many difficulties, due chiefly to the 
inflammability and lack of strength of the fibre, the process 
is now a great commercial success, and it is estimated that 
the output of the various factories totals about 1,000 tons 
per annum. The chief names connected with this product 
are those of De Chardonnet, Lehner, and Vivier. 

(2) Bronnert Silk is made from a zinc chloride solution 
of cellulose, but this process has not made such rapid 
development as 

(3) The Cwpr ammonium process, which yields the Pauly, 
Linkmayer, and Thiele silks, which latter is, as regards 
appearance and handle, almost indistinguishable from 
natural silk. 

(4) The Viscose Silk of Cross & Bevan and Stearn is 
also of much interest. 

Properties of Artificial Silk. — The characteristic properties 
of natural silk which render it so much esteemed as a 
textile material are its beautiful lustre, softness, elasticity, 
strength, and covering power, and the ease with which it 
can be dyed. With regard to lustre the artificial silks 
exceed the natural fibre, some having almost an undesirable 
metallic lustre. In softness and general handle most 
varieties of artificial silk are somewhat deficient, but this 
defect has recently been entirely overcome by building up 
the thread of a large number of fine filaments, so that a 
thread of 40 denier may contain 40 to 80 of such filaments. 



62 TEXTILES 

Such a product is now on the market (Thiele silk), and its 
softness and covering power equal that of natural silk. 
All the artificial silks are, however, somewhat difficult to 
manipulate in winding and in the loom. 

In elasticity and strength artificial silks are somewhat 
deficient even when dry, and when wetted the defect is 
greatly accentuated. This renders careful treatment in 
dyeing very necessary. 

Dyeing Properties. — The various artificial silks differ 
considerably in dyeing properties. Collodion silks dye 
for the most part similarly to natural silk, while Pauly, 
Linkmayer, and Thiele silks and Viscose silk behave much 
more like cotton (see Chapter IV.). 

The importance of artificial silk as a textile fibre is now 
recognized, but it is not widely known that the production 
already amounts to eight or nine tons a day and is rapidly 
increasing. The price is from one-third to one-half of that 
of mulberry silk, but will undoubtedly decrease. Fabrics 
entirely composed of artificial silk have only recently been 
successfully produced, but it has for some time been largely 
used as weft yarn, and still more largely in the production 
of plushes and trimmings. / 



CHAPTEE IV 

THE DYEING OF TEXTILE MATERIALS 

Dyeing processes vary in character according to the 
textile material operated upon and the nature and proper- 
ties of the colour desired. 'J'hus, e.g., the production of 
scarlet shades on wool and on cotton requires entirely 
different processes, and the method used in producing a 
hlue on wool with indigo is quite distinct in character from 
that required for dyeing logwood black. 

Many (but by no means all) of the processes used in cotton 
dyeing are carried out without heat. Silk is usually dyed 
in lukewarm baths, while wool dyeing processes are usually 
conducted in boiling baths. Silk is almost invariably dyed 
in the hank or warp ; cotton in the form of hank, cop 
(or bobbins), warp, or cloth; while wool is dyed at all 
stages of manufacture, viz., as loose wool, sliver, hank, 
warp (occasionally), and in piece. 

In all cases the materials are applied to the fibre in 
aqueous solution, from which they are withdrawn either 
partially or completely by simple absorption or by some 
chemical action of the fibre. So-called " dry dyeing " is a 
special process used by garment dyers in which benzine or 
other similar organic solvent is employed instead of water. 
The object of the process is to avoid the removal of the 
stiffening materials in the fabrics. 



64 TEXTILES 

The number of distinct dyes now on the market is very 
large (upwards of 1,000), and with a few notable exceptions 
they are all chemically derived from coal tar products. Of 
the natural dyes still commercially used, indigo and logwood 
are much the most important ; but a few others, such as 
cochineal, fustic, and orchil, find a more limited application. 

In addition to the dyestuff itself, various chemical bodies 
are required in dyeing operations, some being essential 
constituents of the ultimate dyed colour (mordants), and 
others merely aiding the solution or fixation of the dye 
(assistants). In this short summary of dyeing operations 
no exhaustive treatment either of dyestuffs, mordants, or 
assistants is possible ; but many examples of each will be 
incidentally mentioned. 

Mordants. — This term is applied to substances which 
serve a double purpose, viz., they unite both with the fibre 
and with the colouring matter, and thus fix the latter on 
the fibre, and at the same time the new chemical compound 
formed by mordant and dyestuff has frequently an entirely 
different colour to that of the dyestuff itself, being in fact 
the real dye. The mordant is usually applied in a separate 
process before dyeing; but with an increasing number of 
dyes the mordanting comes last, and in some cases the 
mordant and dye are used together. The chemical nature 
of the mordant must depend upon that of the dyestuff. 
In wool dyeing certain metallic salts are largely used 
(bichromate of potash, alum, sulphates of copper and iron), 
whereas in cotton dyeing tannin matters are largely used as 
mordants for the basic dyes. In dyeing silk, dyestuffs 
which do not require mordants are chiefly employed. 

Assistants. — A large variety of acids, alkalies, and salts 



THE DYEING OF TEXTILE MATERIALS 65 

are used for various purposes in dyeing. The acids chiefly 
employed are sulphuric (vitriol), acetic, and formic, all of 
which are used with acid dyes. Carbonate of soda (soda 
ash), caustic soda, and ammonia are the chief alkalies used, 
and sodium chloride (common salt), sodium sulphate 
(Glauber's salt), and many other salts are employed in 
variolas cases as additions to the dye-bath. The role of 
assistants is very varied and cannot be shortly summarized. 

Dyestuffs. — In view of the enormous number of dyestuffs 
it is impossible to deal with them without adopting some 
method of classification, and grouping them according to 
method of application, the following may be distinguished : — 
Group (1) Mordant dyes ; (2) Acid-mordant dyes ; (3) Acid 
dyes ; (4) Direct cotton dyes ; (5) Basic dyes ; (6) Dyes 
applied by special processes. 

(1) Mordant dyes. — With some important exceptions this 
group includes the "fast" dyes. Many of them are 
extremely resistant to the action of the light and to such 
processes as washing and milling (fulling). They must be 
used in conjunction with some metallic mordant, such as 
bichromate of potash or alum, and can be applied to all 
fibres, though they are chiefly used in wool dyeing. 

Example. — Boil the wool for one to two hours in a 
solution of 3 per cent, bichromate of potash (calculated on 
the weight of the wool) ; wash and boil in a separate bath 
with the dyestuff. 

Dyes of this group are not, as a rule, capable of producing 
bright colours, being chiefly used for blacks, navies, browns, 
olives, etc. The group includes the alizarin, anthracene, 
chrome and diamond dyes, logwood, madder, and many 
others. 

T. F 



66 TEXTILES 

(2) Acid-mordant dyes. — These dyestuffs have very 
similar properties to the last group, but are applicable only 
to wool. They are of increasing importance and include 
the acid-alizarin and acid-anthracene dyes, the cloth reds, 
etc. They are applied in an acid bath and subsequently 
treated with a metallic mordant. 

(3) Acid dyes are largely used both in wool and silk 
dyeing, but are not applicable to cotton. They are not 
used in conjunction with mordants, but are dyed direct 
with the addition of 2 to 4 per cent, (sulphuric or formic) acid 
to the dye-bath. They vary considerably in regard to 
fastness to light, some being very fast and others com- 
paratively fugitive ; but as a class they are not so fast as 
groups (1) and (2). They are also more readily affected by 
washing and milling (fulling). 

This group is a very numerous one and comprises a 
complete range of shades from the brightest primary 
colours to black. 

(4) The Direct Cotton dyes. — These, as their name implies, 
have the special property of dyeing cotton without the aid of 
any mordant. Many of them are also used on wool, on 
which fibre they produce shades which are fast to milling. 
They are little used on silk. The method of application 
to any fibre is very simple, the only addition required 
being salt or Glauber's salt, with or without a little 
soda ash. By certain methods of after-treatment (" sad- 
dening " and " developing ") some of these dyes are 
rendered much faster than when dyed in the direct 
manner. Practically the same complete range of shades 
is obtainable with the direct -'cotton colours as with 
the acid colours. As examples of this group may be 



THE DYEING OF TEXTILE MATERIALS 07 

mentioned the benzo, diamine, mikado, titan, and hessian 
dyes. 

(5) The Basic Colours. — This group is numerically 
smaller, and in range of colour less extensive, than the 
groups of mordant, acid, or direct cotton dyes. It includes, 
however, the most brilliant dyes known, rhodamine pink, 
auramine yellow, malachite green, methylene blue, magenta, 
and methyl violet being well-known examples. The basic 
dyes (with few exceptions) are not used on wool, since they 
are apt to rub (smear). On silk they are dyed direct, with 
the addition of a little soap, but cotton requires to be pre- 
viously mordanted with tannic acid or some form of tannin 
matter. The most serious defect of this group of dyes, as 
a class, is that they are fugitive to light. 

(6) Dyes applied by special processes. — Indigo. — This is 
the most important of all dyestuffs, still retaining its pre- 
eminence in spite of the large number of competitors and 
substitutes which have been introduced. It is used very 
largely both on wool and on cotton materials, but only 
rarely on silk. Being quite insoluble in water, a special 
method of application is necessary, and this is the same in 
principle whether used for wool or cotton. The process is 
based upon the fact that when indigo is acted upon by what 
are chemically known as reducing agents, the blue in- 
soluble substance is converted into a colourless body which 
is soluble in alkalies. The necessary ingredients in an 
indigo vat are thus the indigo, some alkali (usually lime), 
and some reducing agent ; and the various kinds of vats in 
use differ chiefly in the nature of the latter. In the 
"woad vat," which is largely used in the dyeing of wool 
materials, the reduction is due to a specific bacterium which 

f 2 



68 TEXTILES 

is introduced by the woad ; certain other substances, such as 
bran, madder, molasses, etc., being also necessary to supply 
foodstuff for the bacteria. This vat is used warm, and 
when once " set " may remain in use for several months, 
being systematically replenished with indigo, etc. The 
" hydrosulphite vat " contains indigo, lime, and hydro- 
sulphite of soda, and may be used warm (for wool) or 
cold (for cotton). The "copperas vat" is made up with 
indigo, lime, and copperas (ferrous sulphate) and is used for 
cotton. 

The process of dyeing in the indigo vat consists in 
saturating the material with the vat liquor and, after 
squeezing out the excess, exposing the material to the air, 
when the colourless reduced indigo becomes rapidly 
re-oxidized on the fibre into the original blue indigo. 

Synthetic or " artificial " indigo, being chemically iden- 
tical with natural indigo, is applied in the same manner. 
There are now several distinct but closely associated 
synthetical dyestuffs in addition to the true "artificial 
indigo." They are all dyed in similar manner, but yield a 
variety of blue, purple, and red shades. 

In dyeing dark indigo blues on wool materials it is usual 
to " bottom " the wool with some other (cheaper) colouring 
matter before dyeing in the vat. Frequently also the 
indigo is " filled up " or " topped " after vatting, either with 
the same object or in order to impart a " bloom " to the 
colour. Heavy shades of pure vat blue are rarely met 
with. 

Well-dyed indigo vat blue produces extremely fast shades 
on wool. It retains its fine bloom and brilliancy almost 
indefinitely, and washing does not affect it in the least. It 



THE DYEING OF TEXTILE MATERIALS 69 

also withstands sea air, but of course, if " bottomed " or 
" topped," the associated dyes tuffs may be affected. The 
one defect of vat blue is that the colour " rubs off." This 
cannot be entirely prevented, but the more skilfully the 
dyeing process is carried out the less noticeable is the 
defect. Indigo blue is less fast to light on cotton than on 
wool. 

Aniline black is another dye which requires a special 
method of application, being of such an insoluble and 
chemically resistant nature that the only practicable method 
of using it is to actually produce it on the fibre by suitable 
chemical reactions. It is the most brilliant, dense, and 
permanent black which can be produced on cotton, and is 
dyed, chiefly on cotton yarn, in large amount. It is little 
used on wool or silk. Aniline black is obtained by the 
oxidation of aniline, a basic substance (C6H 5 - NH 2 ) produced 
from the coal tar hydrocarbon benzene (C 6 H 6 ). A bath is 
prepared containing aniline oil, hydrochloric (or other) 
acid, and some suitable oxidizing agent. The cotton is 
saturated with this liquor and then "aged" (hung in a 
warm, moist atmosphere) or otherwise subjected to oxidizing 
conditions. 

As in the case of indigo, aniline black is apt to " rub off " 
if badly dyed. Another defect which can be avoided by 
skilful dyeing (but only in this manner) is tendering of the 
fibre. This may be due either to undue acidity of the bath 
or to oxidation of the fibre. 

Aniline black is a very "fast" colour. It withstands 
"cross-dyeing " perfectly and is also fast to light, washing, 
milling, etc. If dyed in a special manner it is unaffected 
by the very severe processes involved in cotton bleaching 



70 TEXTILES 

(" bleaching black "). It is most readily attacked by 
reducing agents, such as sulphurous acid, which turn it 
green, and long exposure to the atmosphere of a room 
where gas is burnt may thus cause " greening." 

The Sulphide dyes have only within the last few years 
attained to the great importance which they can now claim. 
The group includes many blacks, blues, dark greens, 
browns, and yellows, but at present a good red of this 
series has not been put on the market. With the excep- 
tion of aniline black, they are now the chief dyes used to 
produce fast colours on cotton. They are most conveniently 
dyed on warps, but are also used on pieces and hanks. 
The general method of application is to dissolve the dyes 
(which are insoluble in water) in a solution of sodium 
sulphide, some sodium carbonate and Glauber's salt being 
also frequently used in the dye-bath. The baths are used 
warm, and dyeing must take place below the surface of the 
liquor. 

A very serious defect of the sulphide dyes is that cotton 
dyed with them is liable to become tender (rotten) on 
storing. This is due to the slow development of sulphuric 
acid by oxidation of the sulphur associated with the 
dyestuff. The defect is most liable to occur in stoved union 
goods. The tendering may be prevented by any treatment 
which leaves the goods in a permanently alkaline condition. 

The sulphide dyes are fast to "cross-dyeing" and to 
alkalies and milling. Vidal black was the first important 
dye of this series, and as further examples may be mentioned 
the " immedial," " katigen," " kryogen," " cross-dye," 
" sulphur," " pyrogene," " thiogeffe," " thionol," " thional," 
and " pyrol" blacks and colours. 



THE DYEING OF TEXTILE MATERIALS 71 

The Ingrain dyes. — The term " ingrain " as applied to 
dyes is a very old one. It is now used to designate a 
certain series of cotton dyes — chiefly reds — which are 
produced on the fibre. 

Para (or paranitraniline) red is produced on yarn, warps 
or pieces, by first impregnating the cotton with a colourless 
solution of naphthol, drying and " developing " by passing- 
through a solution of paranitraniline treated with nitrous 
acid. The red is produced instantaneously. It is a very 
brilliant, and fairly fast colour and is largely used as a 
substitute for Turkey red. 

Primuline red is a somewhat similar dye, but is produced 
in the reverse way. The cotton in this case is dyed with 
primuline (a direct yellow dye), then treated with nitrous 
acid, and the yellow colour " developed " into a red by 
treatment with naphthol. 

There are also black, blue, purple, brown, and yellow 
dyes belonging to this series, but they are not much used. 

Turkey red has somewhat of the same pre-eminence as a 
red on cotton as indigo vat blue has on wool. Its pro- 
duction is a special branch of dyeing, carried on in special 
works in a few districts (Manchester and Glasgow). It 
really belongs to the class of mordant dyes, but is produced 
in such a special manner that it may more fittingly be 
mentioned in the section of " special dyes." The cotton, 
in yarn or piece goods form, is first treated with olive or 
castor oil, then mordanted with alumina, and finally dyed 
with alizarin. Many subsidiary processes are necessary 
in order to thoroughly fix the colour and develop its full 
brilliancy. Well dyed Turkey red is a bright scarlet 
colour and is very fast to all influences. 



72 TEXTILES 



Water used in Dyeing. 



In no industry is a plentiful supply of pure soft water of 
more importance than in dyeing, the use of unsuitable 
water resulting not only in considerable waste of material, 
but also in bad work. Perfectly pure water is, however, 
never available in sufficient quantity, since it is not 
found in natural sources, and thus the difference in the 
quality of various water supplies is largely one of degree. 
The chief impurities naturally present in water are the 
carbonates, sulphates, and chlorides of lime and magnesium, 
which impart to the water the property of forming a curdy 
scum with soap, usually termed "hardness." A "soft" 
water is most suitable for dyeing, but "permanent hard- 
ness," which is due to sulphates and chlorides, is much 
less harmful in dyeing than the "temporary hardness" 
caused by carbonates. In wool scouring or any other 
process in which soap is used, both kinds of hardness are 
equally injurious, and the lime-soap curd which is produced 
adheres to the fibre and causes much subsequent trouble 
and damage in dyeing and finishing operations. The 
wastefulness of hard water is well illustrated by the fact 
that 1,000 gallons of water of only 10° hardness will 
destroy and render not only useless, but dangerous, 15 to 
20 lbs. of ordinary soap. 

Iron is a not infrequent impurity in water supplies, 
particularly such as are obtained from coal measures, and 
water containing iron is totally unfit for use in a dye-house, 
since iron has a dulling and darkening effect on many dyes. 

Water of less than 5° of hardness may be considered as 
a good quality for dyeing, particularly if the hardness 



THE DYEING OF TEXTILE MATEEIALS 73 

is mainly " permanent." If the only available supply 
exceeds 8° or 10° in hardness it should be " softened " by 
chemical treatment before use. This can usually be done 
at a cost not exceeding 'M. to del. per 1,000 gallons. 

The organic impurities in water have usually little effect 
on dyeing processes, unless the water is contaminated with 
the recuse from other works. 

Eeference may also be made to the desirability of using 
soft water for steam-raising in order to prevent the produc- 
tion of " boiler scale." 

Interdependence of Processes. 

In order to produce the best possible result it is not only 
necessary that the raw material of which a textile fabric is 
composed should be of good quality, but that all the various 
operations involved in its manufacture should be carried 
out with proper skill and care and with a due regard to 
each other. Thus the carder or comber, the spinner, the 
manufacturer, the dyer, and the finisher should each work 
with a sufficient knowledge of the bearing of his particular 
operation on the other processes of manufacture. 

The high degree of specialization in the textile trade in 
some districts renders co-operation between the various 
branches specially necessary and at the same time specially 
difficult. This frequently causes great trouble to the dyer 
who may be merely instructed to match a given shade 
without being given information as to the processes which 
the material will afterwards undergo. This lack of 
information makes it impossible for him to select the most 
suitable method of dyeing to fit the conditions, and an 



74 TEXTILES 

element of risk is introduced which is entirely unnecessary 
and could be eliminated. 



Processes Preliminary to Dyeing. 

In order that bright, clear, and fast colours may be 
produced in dyeing it is necessary that the textile material, 
whatever its character, should be thoroughly cleansed from 
all grease, dirt, and other impurities before the dyeing 
process is carried out. The treatment requisite for this 
varies. In the case of wool the cleansing process is known 
as "scouring," while the "bleaching" operation has a 
very similar object in the case of cotton, and silk is 
"boiled-off." 

Wool Scouring. — Eaw wool is naturally covered with a 
preservative greasy matter, termed " yolk," to which also 
adheres a considerable quantity of sand, dirt, and other 
foreign matter ; the amount of pure wool varying from 30 
to 80 per cent, of the weight of raw wool. The " scouring " 
or " washing " of raw wool has the object of removing 
these impurities, and the process is carried out by treating 
the wool with warm (not hot) solutions of soap with the 
addition of ammonia or carbonate of soda. This emulsifies 
the yolk, the sand, etc., being then readily washed away. 
Scoured wool is usually oiled before carding or combing, 
and this oil, together with dirt, etc., contracted during the 
various stages of manufacture, must be removed by a second 
scouring operation before yarn or piece dyeing. 

Efficient scouring has a great influence on the dyer's 
work and on the final appearancefand quality of the pieces. 
If wool is not properly scoured the colour is apt to be dull 



THE DYEING OF TEXTILE MATEKIALS 75 

and to " rub off," or may be uneven or show dark or light 
spots. On the other hand, if the scouring is too severe 
the fibre has a diminished lustre, a yellowish colour, and a 
harsh feel. 

" Boiling 1 - off " Silk. — This operation consists in treating 
the raw silk in (at least) two successive soap baths ; the 
first one at a medium temperature, and the second being 
used boiling. It has the object of developing the lustre 
and soft feel of the silk by removing the " silk gum " with 
which the fibre is naturally encrusted. Silk may, however, 
be dyed " in the gum " or only partially boiled-off. 

Cotton Bleaching. — The amount of impurity naturally 
present in raw cotton is small, but the raw fibre is not in a 
suitable state to be dyed, as the "cotton wax" present 
renders the fibre very non-absorbent. " Bleaching for 
white " is carried out by treating the raw cotton successively 
with boiling lime-water, boiling caustic soda, and cold 
dilute bleaching powder solution, with intermediate treat- 
ments with cold dilute acid and many washings. Goods 
which are to be dyed need not be treated with bleaching 
powder, excepting in the case of pale and delicate shades, 
but the earlier operations are always necessary. 

Wool Dyeing Peocesses. 

When a fabric entirely composed of wool is dyed in 
the piece it is obvious that a plain colour only can be 
obtained. If the design of the cloth includes differently 
coloured threads, the wool must be dyed before weaving, 
e.g., as yarn ; while certain effects (mixtures, etc.) can only 
be obtained by spinning together differently coloured fibres 
into the same yarn. 



76 TEXTILES 

This last-mentioned case necessitates the dyeing of the 
wool in the form of sliver or of loose wool. 

The form in which the wool is dyed (whether as loose 
wool, sliver, yarn, or cloth) greatly influences the choice 
of dyes to be used. Some dyes produce good, fast 
shades, but tend to dye unevenly ; and such may be used 
for loose wool where any irregularity disappears in carding, 
spinning, etc., but are inadmissible in piece dyeing where 
absolute evenness of shade is essential. On the other 
hand, the cloth is not scoured after piece dyeing, and, 
therefore, dyes may be used which would be injured by the 
scouring process. Loose wool, however, must be dyed with 
dyes which will withstand scouring. 

Dyeing of Loose Wool. — Loose wool may be dyed in square 
wood or stone vats heated by steam pipes, or in circular 
iron vats heated externally by fire. The wool must be 
stirred occasionally with poles to equalize the action of the 
dye liquor, but since this tends to felt it, discretion is 
necessary. Loose wool may also be dyed by packing it 
into perforated receptacles which are either moved about in 
the hot liquor or through which the liquor is circulated by 
means of a pump. These newer mechanical processes are 
now largely used, as they leave the fibre in a free and open 
condition. 

Slubbing (Sliver). — After carding or combing, the thin 
film of wool fibre is " condensed " into a ribbon of sliver, 
and may be dyed in this condition either in the form of 
hanks or wound into balls (tops). At this stage of yarn 
production the fibres have little coherence, and the hanks 
or tops require careful treatment. Tops are dyed in an 
apparatus in which mechanical circulation of the liquor is 



THE DYEING OE TEXTILE MATERIALS 77 

provided for, but hanks of slubbing may be treated in the 
same way as yarn. 

Yarn Dyeing. — Yarn may be dyed by hand or by machine. 
In the hand method the hanks are hung on sticks which 
rest across oblong vats containing the dye liquor. The 
hanks are systematically moved about in the liquor and 
pulled" over the sticks. Dyeing machines are also largely 
employed, the hanks being mechanically moved about in 
the liquor, or the liquor mechanically circulated through 
the hanks. 

Piece Dyeing. — In this case revolving rollers cause the 
pieces to travel through or move about in the dye liquors. 
The pieces run either at full breadth (dyeing in open 
width) or gathered together as a thick strand (dyeing in 
rope form), according to the nature of the material. 

" Woaded Colours." — This term implies that the wool has 
been dyed in the indigo vat. A woaded blue should be 
dyed with indigo alone, but in the case of woaded blacks, 
greens, and browns the indigo is necessarily combined with 
other dyes. The term has lost most of its significance since 
the introduction of the alizarin and other fast dyes. 

Blacks on Wool. — Logwood blacks are very usual. The 
wool is mordanted with bichromate of potash and dyed 
with logwood in a separate bath, a small amount of yellow 
dye being used to neutralize the blue of the logwood. 
Beautiful blacks are thus produced, but they have the 
great defect of turning greenish during long wear of the 
material. Alizarin blacks are obtained by dyeing with a 
mixture of alizarin dyes or chrome mordant. They do not 
" green " in wear. Both logwood and alizarin blacks are fast 
to milling and scouring. Acid-mordant blacks (anthracene 



78 TEXTILES 

acid black, diamond black, etc.) are dyed with the addition 
of acid and are afterwards chromed. They are fast to all 
influences. Acid blacks, such as naphthylamine and 
Victoria black, are dyed with the addition of sulphuric acid. 
They are fairly fast to light, but are not suitable for goods 
which are to be heavily milled. 

Dark Blues, Greens, and Browns on Wool. — These may be 
obtained by using dyes of any of the various groups 
mentioned under blacks. 

Bright Blues, Greens, Reds, Yellows, and Fancy Colours are 
chiefly dyed with acid dyes. 

Cotton Dyeing Peocbsses. 

Cotton is mainly dyed in the form of hanks of yarn and 
warps, less usually as piece goods. The dyeing of cotton 
on spools or cops is now rapidly extending, two types of 
machines being in use. In one type the cops are placed 
on perforated or grooved skewers and the dye liquor forced 
through by a pump (skewer dyeing). In the other type 
the cops are closely packed in a tank, compressed, and 
the liquor forced completely through the whole mass (pack 
dyeing). In warp dyeing a number of warps pass side by 
side continuously through a series of vats containing the 
necessary mordanting or dyeing liquors. 

Occasionally weft yarn is dyed in lengths, as in the case 
of warps the yarn being subsequently rewound on to weft 
bobbins. This cannot be recommended, as it is not unusual 
for warps to be somewhat darker in colour at one end than 
at the other, and when rewound this may produce a stripy 
effect in the piece. Cotton in ^he form of piece goods is 
dyed in the open width or rope form, usually the former. 



THE DYEING OF TEXTILE MATEEIALS 79 

The dyeing properties of cotton are quite different from 
those of wool, and therefore the processes and materials 
used in the two cases are to a large extent different. Cotton 
has little affinity for metallic mordants or for dyes belong- 
ing to the mordant, acid, or basic groups. It has, however, 
a definite affinity for tannic acid and for colouring matters 
belonging to the class known as " direct cotton dyes." 
Cotton is dyed largely with this group, but the dyed colours, 
though bright and in some cases fast to light, are not fast 
to washing with soap. Many of these direct dyes are also 
affected by acids. A considerable number (but not all) of 
the direct dyes may be rendered satisfactorily fast by an 
after-treatment with metallic salts or by " diazotizing and 
developing," this applying principally to dark browns, 
blues, and blacks. 

Fast Blacks on Cotton. — There are two ways of producing 
exceedingly fast blacks on cotton, viz., by dyeing it an 
"aniline black " or with a "sulphide black." Both are 
largely used, the latter chiefly for the warps of pieces 
which are afterwards "cross-dyed" (see Union Dyeing). 
Aniline black is somewhat more costly than a black pro- 
duced by sulphide dyes, but is considered superior in 
body, tone, and brilliancy. 

Fast Colours on Cotton. — Dark blues, browns, and greens, 
and a variety of greys, buffs, and pale fancy shades, are also 
obtained by means of sulphide dyes, but there is as yet no 
bright red belonging to this group. The fastest bright red 
on cotton is Turkey red, which is obtained by oiling the 
cotton, then mordanting with alum and dyeing with 
alizarin. Para red (paranitraniline red) is also very bright 
and fairly fast. It is produced by saturating the cotton 



SO TEXTILES 

with an alkaline solution of beta-naphthol, then drying 
and passing into a diazotized solution of par anitrani line. 
In this case, as in aniline black, the dye is actually formed 
on the fibre. 

Cotton is also largely dyed with indigo in a similar 
manner to wool, but the vat is used cold and a chemical 
reducing agent is used (ferrous sulphate or sodium hydro- 
sulphite). 

Fast browns, drabs, etc., are largely dyed with catechu. 

Basic Colours on Cotton. — These dyes are fixed on cotton 
by mordanting the fibre in a solution of some tannin 
matter (sumach or myrabolans), then " fixing " in a solu- 
tion of some suitable metallic salt (tartar emetic or stannic 
chloride), and finally dyeing. The basic colours comprise 
a series of extremely bright reds, yellows, blues, greens, and 
violets, as well as many duller colours. As a class they 
are fugitive to light, but there are exceptions to this. 

Dyeing of Mercerized Cotton. — The general dyeing proper- 
ties of mercerized cotton are similar to those of ordinary 
cotton, but the affinity of mercerized cotton for the direct 
dyes, the sulphide dyes, indigo, and para red is much 
increased, and the shades obtained by using a certain 
strength of dye solution are much deeper and richer. On 
the other hand, mercerized cotton dyes less easily than 
ordinary cotton with basic colours. If the cotton has not 
been evenly mercerized it is impossible to produce level 
shades in dyeing. 

Union Dyeing Processes. 

Union goods composed of cotton and wool require special 
methods of dyeing. A common process is to dye the cotton 



THE DYEING OF TEXTILE MATERIALS si 

in the warp, the dyed cotton being then woven with un- 
dyed wool weft. The pieces are then " cross-dyed " with 
acid dyes which colour the wool only. The cotton warp 
must, of course, be dyed with colouring matters (such as 
the sulphide dyes) which are unaffected by boiling dilute 
acid. Another process largely made use of in low-class 
unions is to first dye the wool in the piece with acid 
dyes, and then to " fill up " the cotton by mordanting with 
tannin and dyeing with a basic colour, the whole of the 
cotton treatment being conducted in the cold in order to 
avoid staining the wool. When a uniform shade is 
required on both fibres the union material may be dyed 
with direct cotton dyes which colour both wool and cotton. 

Silk Dyeing Processes. 

Silk is always dyed in hank form ; and closely associated 
with the dyeing is the so-called weighting process. Silk 
has the peculiar property of absorbing certain metallic 
salts and other bodies (tannin, glucose, etc.) to an enormous 
extent without injury to its lustre, and by suitable treat- 
ment it can in this manner be weighted to such a degree 
that 1 lb. of raw silk produces 2 to 3 lbs. of dyed and 
weighted silk. This weighting process is very general, 25 
to 50 per cent, of added weight being usual. The practice is, 
however, greatly to be deprecated, as it injures the wearing 
properties of the fibre. Pure silk has excellent lasting 
properties, while weighted silk will gradually become 
rotten merely by storage. 

Wild Silk (Tussur Silk) is very difficult to dye, and a 
good black on tussur can only be produced by a few 

T. g 



82 TEXTILES 

dyers. It dyes readily with basic dyes and fairly well 
with acid dyes. 

Reeled Silk (Mulberry Silk) has, generally speaking, similar 
dyeing properties to wool. It is chiefly dyed with acid or 
basic dyes without mordant, and there is no difficulty in 
obtaining a variety of brilliant colours on this fibre. In 
boiling baths wool dyes deeper colours than silk, but at 
low temperatures the relative affinity is reversed, and an 
intermediate temperature may therefore be usually found 
(varying with each dye) at which the two fibres dye 
equally. 

Silk is rarely dyed with indigo or with mordant dyes, 
excepting in the case of blacks. 

The dyeing of black silk constitutes a special branch 
of the dyeing trade and needs considerable experience. 

The Dyeing of Artificial Silk. 

The artificial silks, being essentially constituted of 
cellulose, have dyeing properties similar to those of cotton, 
but the various kinds of artificial silk differ considerably in 
this respect. On account of the low tensile strength of 
many artificial silks when wetted, great care is required in 
dyeing these fibres. They are best dyed at a comparatively 
low temperature with basic dyes (without mordant) or with 
direct cotton dyes. 

Colour Matching. 

In dyeing any material to match a given shade great 

care is required to ensure that the two will match under all 

conditions. If the " matching off" is done by gaslight the 

two may be quite dissimilar when viewed by daylight. This 



THE DYEING OF TEXTILE MATEEIALS S3 

well-known fact is due to the different optical properties of 
the various dyes. Two blue dyes, for example, may appear 
identical in hue, but when each is mixed with the same 
amount of the same yellow dye the resulting greens may 
differ considerably. If examined spectroscopically the two 
blue dyes will be found to have different absorption spectra, 
andthis is the fundamental cause of their different behaviour 
in mixtures or when viewed in different lights. The special 
optical properties of the various dyestuffs are thus of great 
importance in " matching off " or dyeing to shade. Equally 
important is the character of the light by which the colours 
are viewed, and the light reflected from a white cloud into 
a window with a north aspect is considered the most suit- 
able. The near presence of a red brick wall or any other 
coloured surface is quite sufficient to disturb an accurate 
match ; direct sunlight or a deep blue sky being also fatal 
in matching certain greys, drabs, etc. The use of a 
perfectly uniform light of the same character as a north 
daylight thus greatly simplifies the accurate matching of 
colours. 1 The difficulties caused by the different absorption 
spectra of dyes can only be eliminated by a spectroscopical 
examination of each, or by using in bulk dyeing the same 
dyestuffs as were employed in dyeing the pattern which is 
being matched. 

Fastness Properties of Dyes. 

That some colours are " fast " and others are " fugitive " 
to light is a matter of as common knowledge as that some 
will withstand washing much better than others. These 

1 Such a light is to be found in the "Dalite" lamp of Dufton & 
Gardner. 

a 2 



84 TEXTILES 

differences are inherent to the nature of the dyes and are 
not (usually) due to defects in the methods of application. 
Thus the proper selection of dyes is of the greatest import- 
ance to the production of satisfactory results. It is obvious, 
for example, that material which is to be used for stuff 
curtains should be dyed with dyestuffs which have good 
fastness to light, fastness to washing being a secondary 
consideration; on the other hand, yarn which is to be used for 
making socks or underwear must be dyed with washing-fast 
colours, the effect of exposure to light being here less 
important. Again, in the case of Avoollen goods which are 
heavily fulled (milled), if yarn dyed the colours must be able 
to withstand that somewhat severe operation, and cotton 
warps which are made up with wool weft and then " piece 
dyed" must be dyed with colours which will not be affected 
by boiling dilute acid. Each case must thus be specially 
considered from this point of view as well as regards the 
question of producing the desired colour. 

Tables have been drawn up showing the fastness 
properties of the various dyestuffs as regards light, milling, 
scouring, cross-dyeing, rubbing, washing, steaming, hot- 
pressing, etc., but it is impossible to usefully summarize 
such lists, and on this point manuals of dyeing must be 
consulted. 



CHAPTEE Y 



THE PEINCIPLES OF SPINNING 



It may seem somewhat out of order not to give priority to 
preparing and combing. But the end must justify the 
means. 

Just as weaving naturally developed before spinning, so 
did spinning naturally develop before the many interesting 
and ingenious processes which to-day precede the spinning 
operation, rendering this operation much easier of accom- 
plishment and vastly more perfect in its results than was 
the case in the olden days. In dealing with spinning prior 
to dealing with the preparatory processes, then, we are but 
following the natural evolution of the processes ; and in so 
doing we have the great gain of knowing exactly what is 
required — what are the necessary conditions for a " good 
spin "—and can therefore more perfectly realize the raison 
d'etre of the various processes to be subsequently dealt with 
and described. It might be contended that, following out 
this principle, weaving should be first dealt with. There is, 
however, a natural limit beyond which we may not pass 
without loss rather than gain. 

Spinning may be defined as the art of throwing a number 
of more or less short fibres together in such a way that, 
being drawn out to form a comparatively fine filament, they 
grip one another by reason of the twist inserted, and thus 
form a comparatively firm, strong thread. Thus spinning 



86 TEXTILES 

primarily consists of the two operations of drawing-out, or 
" drafting," and twisting. It should at once be noted that 
this operation is entirely distinct from silk " throwing," 
which simply consists of reeling the continuous thread of 
from 400 to 1,600 yards forming the silkworm's cocoon, and 
throwing or twisting it with one or more threads of similar 
character to form a firm, stronger thread. 

Long Fibre Spinning.— Very brief study of the art of 
spinning will demonstrate the comparative ease with which 
long fibres, such as flax, hemp, long wool, etc., may be spun 
into yarn. Given length and all else is simple. The early 
recognition of this fact would naturally lead to the prepara- 
tion of flax, hemp, wool, etc., bundles or slivers so arranged 
that a continuous band of more or less parallel fibres might 
be passed into the spinning machine to be given the 
necessary twist and so be converted into thread. Thus the 
simplest and consequently earliest form of spinning would 
consist of some arrangement whereby, after having deftly 
formed a small band or sliver of fibres by the hand, twist 
might be expeditiously inserted. Such was " distaff 
spinning," the process being exactly that just described, 
with very few conveniences for facilitating speed of pro- 
duction. How long the art of spinning rested in this very 
inefficient state we do not know, but probably for hundreds 
of years. Amid the ingenuity with which we of the 
twentieth century are surrounded from the cradle we 
cannot well gauge the mental effort necessary to evolve 
the idea of a continuous spinning process in place of the 
slow intermittent process. But it came at last, and the 
flax wheel was evolved. In this thetleftly extended sliver of 
right thickness and regularity was fed continuously by hand 



THE PKTNCIPLES OF SPINNING 87 

into a flyer revolved by means of a foot-treadle, which, in 
conjunction with the bobbin upon which the yarn was to be 




Fig. 9.— Double-grooved Wheel A ; Pedal B ; Flyer C; 
Bobbin I). 



wound, both twisted it and wound it neatly upon this bobbin. 
No doubt the difficulty in evolving this arrangement was 
due to the fact that it is impossible to effect the continuous 



TEXTILES 



feeding in and twisting of a sliver without some means of 
winding on to the tivisting spindle the thread so formed, or, on 
the other hand, of winding the yarn continuously on to a 

bobbin without some arrange- 
ment for the continuous twisting 
of the same. The bobbin and 
flyer — practically the funda- 
mental principle of all con- 
tinuous spinning frames — is 
really a most ingenious arrange- 
ment, and it would not be sur- 
prising to find that short fibre 
spinning on the ordinary simple- 
spindle hand wheel really pre- 
ceded this invention. The prin- 
ciple of long fibre spinning is 
infinitely simpler than the prin- 
ciple of short fibre spinning, but 
the necessary hand machine for 
continuous long fibre spinning is 
much more subtle and compli- 
cated than that required for 
short fibre spinning. 

The " flax wheel " (Figs. 9 and 
9a) consists of a double-grooved 
wheel {A, A) worked by a foot- 
pedal (B) round which two bands pass, one to the grooved 
flange on the spindle and flyer (C), and the other to the 
grooved flange of the bobbin (D), so that as the wheel is 
revolved by the foot-pedal it in turr> revolves both flyer and 
bobbin. As the bobbin has a smaller grooved flange than 




Fig. 9a.— Diagram of Flyer 
and Bobbin arrangement 
on the ordinary Flax 
Wheel. 



THE PRINCIPLES OF SPINNING 89 

the grooved flange or driving wheel of the spindle, it there- 
fore goes somewhat quicker than the spindle and flyer. 
The bundle of flax or wool is conveniently placed above the 
flyer and bobbin, and a convenient or correct thickness of 
sliver is made up from it and passed through the eye (E) of 
the flyer, round the wing and over a notch or wire (F) 
which* directs the thread on to the bobbin. Upon the 
wheel being revolved, twist is put into the sliver in pro- 
portion to the length of sliver delivered to a given number 
of revolutions of the flyer ; and the yarn is wound up 
in proportion as the bobbin gains upon the flyer. If 
no sliver were delivered and the wheel revolved, twist only 
ivould be put into the sliver. If all the sliver required were 
delivered, the bobbin held fast, and the flyer rotated, yarn 
would simply be wound upon the bobbin. The actual 
spinning operation comes in between these two extremes. 

The idea of increased production by a continuous employ- 
ment of both hands and feet would naturally lead to 
further attempts at increasing production. It would at once 
be realized that two main developments were necessary, viz., 
a more speedy means of preparing the slivers to be spun and 
a greater number of spindles to be worked by hand. This 
latter idea probably germinated first, as we have fairly early 
records of a double-spindle flax wheel. Few people, how- 
ever, would be skilful enough to work this with the con- 
dition of feeding the spindles with unprepared slivers ; 
hence little advance was made. The development of 
drafting rollers by Lewis Paul eventually entirely removed 
this limitation. How crude the ideas of the eighteenth 
century were we can only realize by again reverting to the 
fact that it was supposed that, as with metals, one pair of 



90 



TEXTILES 



Double Eollers. 



Single Roller. 





Points for Consideration. 

(1) Size. 

(2) Material (foundation 

and covering). 

(3) Fluting. 



Points for Consideration. 

(1) Sizes and .Relative Sizes. 

(2) Material (foundations and 

coverings). 

(3) Fluting. 

(4) Method of Weighting. 

(5) Method of Driving. 



Drafting Eollers. 





Points for Consideration. 

(1) Relative Sizes of Back and Front Rollers. 

(2) Materials (ftnmdations and coverings). 

(3) Flutings. 

(4) Method of Weighting and Influence on Power Consumed. 

(5) Distance apart. 

(61 Method of Driving. 

(7) Relative Speeds of the two pairs of Rollers. 

(8) Inclination of Rollers. 

(9) Supports (carriers) between the two pairs of Rollers. 

Fig. 10. 



THE PRINCIPLES OF SPINNING 91 

rollers would be sufficient to effect the necessary drafting. 
The development, however, was made, and its utility 
gradually realized to the full. We can well imagine the 
interest that Lewis Paul, Arkwright, and others would have 
in experimenting with rollers and noting the conditions 
under which they might best be employed for drafting, and 
it is something to their credit -to be able to say that these 
early workers practically developed in their machines 
principles and methods which we have not been able to 
improve upon in principle to any great extent. 

A few words on roller-draft will demonstrate the prin- 
ciples employed. Some of the factors of roller-draft are 
illustrated in Fig. 10. These factors seem comparatively 
simple, but they are not really so. Take for example 
the first factor — size of rollers. At least three varying 
factors are here involved, viz., length of fibre to be drawn, 
size of roller to give the best conditions of wearing- 
surface, and exact condition of gripping of the fibre 
desired. Thus in the spinning of short fibres such as 
cotton the diameter of the rollers should be approximately 
the length of the fibre (Fig. 11), while in long wool fibres 
(Fig. 12) there is little relationship of the diameters of the 
rollers to the length of the fibres, but on the other hand 
these diameters are decided with reference to grip on the 
fibre and surface wearing quality. For a l|-inch staple 
cotton a If -inch diameter pair of rollers is usually employed, 
while for an 8-inch wool yarn a 1^-inch diameter bottom 
back roller and a 5 -inch top front roller bearing upon a 
4-inch diameter bottom roller are usually employed. Here 
again it will be noted there is an interesting question of 
" grip." With small rollers the gripping surface will be 



■li"- — * li" x 




INDIAN. 




AMERICAN. 



!*- Hi" ■* It ** 




EGyPTIAN &■ SFA ISLAND . 



Fig. 11. — Drafting Eollers for Various Lengths of Staples of Cotton. 



THE PEINCIPLES OF SPINNING 



93 



small, and consequently there is a tendency to " cut." With 
larger rollers the gripping surface will be much larger, and 
consequently a firmer grip obtained with less fear of cutting. 
It will further be evident that it may be very desirable to 
leave some rollers bare and to clothe other rollers with leather, 




wool 




Pig. 12. 



Cotton 



-Illustrating the Eelative Sizes of Wool and 
Cotton Drafting Pollers. 



etc. Now steel rollers may be clothed with leather in two 
ways, first by running a continuous leather apron between 
them, or by actually clothing one of the rollers with leather 
upon a felt or other foundation. Corresponding fluting 
necessitating rollers of equal size renders the leather apron 
idea more economical, and in fact necessary, in certain wool 



94 TEXTILES 

boxes, while in other boxes and frames a large 6-inch 
roller, leather clothed, fulfils the requirements of the case 
both from the efficiency and wearing surface or cost points 
of view. 

Again the questions of double metal nip, metal and 
leather or cloth nip, or double leather or cloth nip are 
worthy of the most careful consideration. The rollers in 
a wash-bowl are clothed with wool and wool works wool. 
But in the case of cotton, leather against metal is applied. 
Here is a most interesting problem. 

Then with reference to the distance apart of the two 
pairs of drafting rollers most interesting points are to be 
studied. Take, for instance, an 8-inch wool fibre. If this 
is passed through rollers 6 inches apart — the front rollers 
revolving faster than the back rollers — it will probably be 
broken. If the rollers are exactly 8 inches apart the back 
pair will give it up just as the front pair take it; while if 
the rollers are, say, 10 inches apart the fibre must freely 
ride upon its neighbours for 2 inches after leaving the 
back rollers before the front rollers take it. The middle 
condition is the correct one, all cotton drawing rollers 
being very accurately set to control the fibre as positively 
as possible without breaking it. But in a well-prepared 
wool combed sliver or "top" the fibres may vary from 
4 inches to 10 inches or 12 inches, while there is also 
the question of twist in the sliver to be taken into account } 
twist enabling the drawer, as it were, to work the fibre with 
the fibre. If it were not for the twist factor and the 
natural cohesion of wool — save when affected with 
electricity — wool " top " drawing would be a much more 
difficult process than it actually is ; in fact it would be 



THE PRINCIPLES OF SPINNING 



95 



necessary to work to the shortest fibre, breaking all the 
longer fibres, thus consuming power and destroying the 
quality of length so often required in worsted yarns. 

An economical question is involved in the speed at which 




EiG-. 13. — Arkwright's Water-frame. 

drafting rollers, can be run. Alone, i.e., without any 
spindle attachment to twist and wind up the sliver drafted, 
the limit would depend in part on the nature of the fibre. 
Cotton, for example, can be drafted quickly when the 
fibres are once started sliding upon one another, but not 



96 TEXTILES 

before ; and again, air blasts and air friction so affect cotton 
that they must be very carefully taken into account. There 
is also a mechanical problem of wear and tear involved, so 
that altogether this also is really a most interesting, if 
involved, question. 

It will now be realized that given drawing rollers, the 
flyer and bobbin mechanism, and a reasonably steady 
driving power, the factors for a successful automatic 
machine are present. Eichard Arkwright was the first 
to recognize this, and his water-frame was the first 
machine of any moment effecting the spinning of yarns 
automatically. 

The illustration of Arkwright's " water-frame " (Fig. 
13) will explain the general arrangement. The only new 
problem involved is the relationship of front rollers and 
spindle. The possible positions of spindle to front rollers 
are illustrated in Fig. 14, but it should be further remarked 
that the solution of this problem will in part depend upon 
the inclination of the drawing rollers. It should further 
be remarked that probably "gravity" cannot be entirely 
ignored. So far as relative position goes the relationships 
shown at A and E are identical, but it will be realized at 
once that the force of gravity may make a material 
difference in the " spin," especially if the sliver is heavy 
and has not marked adhesive qualities. The main point to 
note, however, is that of limitation of the twist. Anything 
touching the yarn between the top of spindle and the nip 
of the front rollers will limit the twist to below this point. 
Thus in some cases it may be desirable to have such a 
relative position of spindles add front rollers that the 
twist runs right up to the nip of the rollers ; in other 



THE PRINCIPLES OE SPINNING 



97 



cases it may be desirable to lay the sliver on the bottom 
front roller ; and in other cases it may actually be neces- 





^T^^ > 




U 




Eig. 14. — Possible position of Spindle in relationship to Drafting Rollers. 

sary to introduce what is known as a trap-board with 
the threefold object of carrying the yarn straight from the 
nip of the rollers, of centring the yarn above the spindle — 
as in the cap frame — and of holding the twist in the yarn 



T. 



H 



98 



TEXTILES 




tf 







.---■^^^a- 





THE PBINCIPLES OF SPINNING 99 

near to the spindle or cop. This latter point is worthy of 
very careful consideration, as the holding apart of two 
threads to be twisted together just above the twisting- 
spindle has a marked effect on the regularity of the twist. 
The inclination of the spindle also, as will be noted directly,- 
is most important in the woollen mule, and in general 
hardly receives the attention it merits. 

A glance may now be taken at the modifications of 
the continuous bobbin and flyer principle of spinning 
introduced since the time of Arkwright. 

When it was realized that the bobbin or spindle was the 
spinning mechanism and the flyer the winder-on, an 
endeavour was naturally made to simplify this latter, 
thereby saving expense in construction, effecting a reduction 
in the consumption of power, easier doffing and quicker 
running. The labour difficulties in America further for- 
warded this movement and so the ring frame came into 
being. 

In the modern ring frame the spindle — but in this case 
without a flyer — is the chief motive factor. The drafted 
sliver is delivered from exactly above the centre of the 
spindle, so that upon the spindle being revolved twist is 
put into the sliver. But how is winding-on effected ? 
Surrounding the spindle is the ring — or, conversely, the 
spindle passes exactly through the centre of the ring, and 
upon this ring, suitably controlled by the ring-flange, is a 
" traveller." The sliver, instead of passing directly to the 
apex of the spindle, first passes through the traveller and 
then on to the spindle or bobbin placed on the spindle. The 
traveller thus acts as a retarder, enabling the spindle to 
wind up the yarn delivered to it by the front rollers. The 

h 2 



100 



TEXTILES 




Fie. 15. — Eing Spring Frame. — A, back rollers; B, carriers; 
C, front rollers ; D, eyelet board ; E, spindle ; F, spindle 
support ; G, spindle wbarl ; H, tip. drum round which spindle 
band passes ; /, ring ; J, traveller. 



THE PEINCIPLES OF SPINNING 101 

yarn is distributed on to the bobbin by the slow movement 
up and down of the ring-rail, the spindles naturally being 
fixtures. To ensure high speeds on this machine — say 
7,000 to 12,000 revolutions — many spindles of special 
construction have been designed, some self-balancing, some 
running in oil, etc. (see Fig. 15). 

The development of the ring frame would naturally lead 
inventors still further afield, and eventually the cap frame 
was evolved. 

The cap frame is very similar to the ring frame, save that 
the edge of the cap develops, or helps to develop, the 
friction whereby the bobbin may wind yarn on to itself. 
As the caps are too heavy to move, the bobbin-rail moves 
to effect the distribution of the yarn on the bobbin (see 
Fig. 16). When the cap frame was first tried in Bradford 
the cops produced were so soft that the yarn could be 
jerked off the bobbin. This was owing to the fact that the 
frame was run at 2,800 revolutions per minute " to give it 
a chance." It was only when the frame was speeded up to 
5,000 revolutions per minute that its great possibilities 
were realized. The cap frame came into the wool district 
from the cotton district. Why it should be so successful 
for pure Botany wool and so useless for cotton is again a 
most interesting question which we have not space to 
investigate here. 

In two important points the supposed automatic spinning 
frames are not automatic. They neither feed themselves 
automatically nor do they "doff" themselves automati- 
cally. The comparatively large bobbins placed in the 
creel behind the back rollers of a spinning frame contain so 
much sliver to be spun that little manual labour is necessary 



102 



TEXTILES 




Fig. 16. — Cap Spinning Frame. — A, back rollers; B, carriers; 
C, front rollers ; D, eyelet board ; E, spindle fixed in 
framework ; F, cap supported by spindle ; G, bearing for 
tube I ; If, wharl round ■wbich'ariving tape passes ; i", tube 
upon whicb bobbin or spool is fixed and carried round. 



THE PRINCIPLES OF SPINNING 103 

to keep the frame supplied with slivers or roving to be 
spun into yarn. Very different is it, however, with the 
doffing of the comparatively small spools or bobbins upon 
which the spun yarn is delivered. On an average a flyer 
frame running on -^'s with 10 turns per inch, will be 
doffed six times per day of 10J hours, and a cap frame 
running on ^'s with 16 turns per inch seven times per 
day of 10J hours. With the scarcity in half-time labour 
the invention of an automatic doffing motion has become 
imperatively necessary. Messrs. Clough & Co., of Keighley, 
have successfully employed such a motion on their flyer 
spinning frames during the past five years, while Mr. W. H. 
Arnold-Forster, of Burley- in- Wharf edale, has also recently 
patented such a motion of somewhat novel construction. 
At first it was thought that given half-time labour such a 
motion was not required from the economical point of 
view. From experiments recently made, however, it would 
appear that it is more than probable that the doffing motion 
will ultimately supplant half-time labour, being actually 
considerably more efficient with regard to output. This, 
however, refers more particularly to flyer frames — the 
conditions of doffing cap and ring frames being somewhat 
more complicated. Considering the mechanical problem 
in a broad way it would seem as though the mechanical 
problems of doffing are greater than the problems involved 
in spinning, and that therefore the spinning machine 
should be made to the doffer and not, as at present, the 
doffer applied to a machine designed without regard to any 
such attachment. Of course, to change a machine which, 
although apparently simple, has been evolved by genera- 
tions of workers and probably contains more than we have 



104 TEXTILES 

the least idea of, is a dangerous thing. Still, the result 
may justify the attempt. 

Short Fibre Spinning. — The art of short-fibre spinning 
would possibly develop some time after long-fibre spinning, 
being somewhat more involved and of such a nature that 
it would not so readily be " thought of," but would 
probably be accidentally " discovered." Briefly, the art of 
short-fibre spinning consists in supporting the thread or 
sliver during elongation with twist instead of with rollers. 
Did spinning simply consist of twisting fibres together, then 
it would be impossible to differentiate between long-fibre 
spinning and short-fibre spinning. Any difference would 
then probably lie in the preparation of the respective fibres 
for the spinning. But the drafting or drawing out of the 
sliver being necessarily implied, at once emphasizes the 
difference between long- and short-fibre spinning. For in 
long-fibre spinning the fibres are of such a length and are 
arranged so parallel in the sliver that when the spinning 
twist is inserted it is inserted into a sliver or thread already 
formed, and of which the thickness is already decided. 
Whereas in short-fibre spinning the commencement of the 
final twisting is really a putting in of drafting-twist, i.e., as 
the twist is inserted the sliver is elongated. But for this 
drafting-twist the short-fibred slivers to be spun would 
break. This drafting-twist running into the thinnest 
sections of the slivers strengthens them, and these becoming 
the strongest in turn serve as a means to draft the sections 
which are now relatively weaker. Upon the drafting being 
completed the elongated sliver is then converted into a true 
thread by receiving its final complement of twist. So potent 
is the drafting-twist that it must be exactly adjusted to the 



THE PEINOIPLES OP SPINNING 



105 



length of fibre being spun, the shorter the fibre and the 
more drafting-twist, and conversely, the longer the fibre the 
less drafting-twist, until for long fibres no twist at all is 
possible, as they bind the sliver too much, under which 
circumstance roller control must be resorted to. The 




Pig. 17.— General View of Woollen Mule. 

principle of spindle-draft is the distinguishing feature of 
mule spinning, especially woollen mule spinning, producing 
yarns of marked characteristics which in turn have a 
marked influence in both the weaving and finishing 
operations. Again, the method of inserting twist into 
the slivers on a mule must have some influence upon 




(A) 



(*) 



ElG. 17a. — [A) Condensed woollen sliver, prior to spinning ; 
(3) condensed worsted sliver prior to spinning. 



THE PEINCIPLES OF SPINNING 107 

the resultant yarn, though what it exactly is we cannot 
yet say. 

The woollen mule is the perfect short-fibre spinner. In 
brief, a woollen mule consists of three main parts, viz., the 
prepared or condensed sliver holder and deliverer, the car- 
riage with its spindles, and the headstock which controls the 
action of the other two. The condensed sliver (A, Figs. 17 
and 17a), brought up from the carding machine on lightly- 
flanged long condenser bobbins, rests on a delivery roller, 
and being turned by surface contact is always completely 
under control. The slivers from these condenser bobbins 
are passed through a pair of stationary rollers the revolu- 
tion of which is in accord with the turning of the condensed 
sliver roller, and both are under perfect control from the 
headstock, intermittent delivery being varied at will accord- 
ing to the requirements presently to be described. The 
carriage — carrying from 300 to 700 spindles of any suitable 
pitch, thickness and inclination, according to the work to 
be done — is perfectly controlled from the headstock by 
means of drawing-out and running-in scrolls. The speed 
of the spindles is also under perfect control so far as 
drafting-twist and final twist are concerned, and something 
more than under perfect control when the building up of the 
cop is in process, as will be explained immediately. One 
complete spin, starting with the carriage run-in to the 
delivery rollers, and consequently with the spindle points 
close to the grip of the rollers, from which the condensed 
sliver passes direct to the spindle points, takes a few turns 
round the spindle, and in the shape of spun yarn forms the 
cop on the spindle, may be described as follows : As 
the delivery rollers deliver condensed sliver the carriage 



108 TEXTILES 

with its spindles slowly retreats until it reaches about half 
the distance of its complete traverse, when the delivery 
rollers suddenly stop. The carriage, however, goes on 
towards its full traverse slower and slower, in the meantime 
the spindles putting in just the requisite drafting or sup- 
porting twist which, owing to the nearly upright position 
and thickness of the spindles, vibrates right along the 
slivers and ensures distribution in fair proportion to the 
diameter of the yarn, so that as thin places are strengthened 
and become strong the thick places are drafted out, and so an 
equalizing action goes on right throughout the drafting 
operation. Upon the carriage reaching the extent of its 
traverse — when drafting is completed — the spindles are 
turned on to double speed to effect the necessary twisting of 
the two yards of yarn per spindle, just twisting as quickly 
as possible. The insertion of so much twist naturally 
causes a contraction of the thread, and to allow for this a 
slight return of the carriage towards the delivery rollers is 
arranged for. Upon the completion of the twisting the 
spindles are reversed for a few turns — this is termed 
" backing-off" — to enable the faller guide wire to commence 
building up the cop from where it left off at the last run-in, 
and a counter-faller wire, suitably weighted, rises, as a 
perfectly even tension must be maintained on the yarn, 
otherwise it "snarls" and forms kinks. The carriage is 
now freed and commences its run-in under the control of 
scrolls which, working in conjunction with a quadrant 
which controls the turning of the spindles, and a " copping- 
plate " which controls the traversing of the faller-wire, 
result in a firm, sound cop being built up. Upon reaching 
the delivering rollers the faller-wire rises; the counter-faller 



THE PRINCIPLES OF SPINNING 



109 



wire falls and the spindles are free to repeat the cycle of 
evolutions. Of course a greater or less amount of condensed 
sliver may be delivered, according to the draft required, 
more or less drafting-twist may be inserted in accordance 
with the binding qualities of the material being treated, 




ElG. 17b. — "Worsted Mule Section. — A, A x , A 2 , French, drawn rovings 
ready for spinning ; B, jack drafting rollers ; C, carriers ; D, 
front drafting rollers ; E, spindle carrying spun yarn ; F, wharl 
on spindle from which band passes to tin drum G ; H, drum which 
conveys motion through the cord /, from the twist pulley J, in 
the headstock K, to tin drum G; L, a catch scroll which 
receiving a variable motion from the quadrant NN, through 
the chain M , gives the spindles the correct rotation to wind up 
the yarn for building a firm cop during the running in of the 
carriage at the same time that the faller wire and counter-faller 
wire P direct and tension the winding up of the yarn, this being 
further controlled by the action of the " copping plate," which 
controls the up and down movement of the faller wires. 

the exact turns per inch required may be inserted at double 
speed, and by a change of " copping-plate " the yarn may 
be spun on bobbins instead of on paper tubes. 

From this description the two main features of mule- 
spinning, viz., the spindle-draft (properly spoken of as 
twisting-draft), and the twisting of unsupported threads 
will be fully realized. It should be noted, however, that as 



110 TEXTILES 

previously remarked the machine just described should not 
be called a mule, for Crompton's " mule " received its name 
from being a hybrid combination of roller and spindle- 
drafting, while in the Woollen mule there never has been any 
roller-draft ; it is simply an automatic jenny in the "billy " 
form. 1 The cotton and worsted mules, however, are genuine 
mules, as roller-draft in these plays almost a leading part. 
If, as very often happens, little or no spindle-draft is 
inserted by these mules the only possible advantage would 
appear to be in the method of inserting the twist. 
Against this presumable advantage there is the intermittent 
character of the cycle of spinning operations and the 
additional floor space occupied to be placed. That there 
must be an advantage is evident from the fact that mule 
spinning in the cotton trade at least holds its own, while in 
the case of the worsted it is rapidly making headway. In 
both these cases it may be that it is the peculiar method of 
sliver preparation, which it makes possible, which is the real 
advantage. This will claim attention in the next chapter. 

It will have been noticed that although cotton is short 
fibred, nevertheless it is frequently spun on the roller-draft 
or long-fibre spinning method. This is accounted for by the 
nature of the cotton fibre, which is much more docile than 
wool and does not require length to control it, but may 
readily be controlled by the small drafting-rollers. In this 
connection it is interesting to note that prior to the 
mechanical era cotton yarns were probably spun very 

1 It is an interesting problem in economy of power to decide 
whether the spun yarn should be run backwards or forwards and the 
condensed sliver left stationary or vice versa. Both forms are still in 
use to-day. 



THE PEINCIPLES OF SPINNING 111 

largely, if not entirely, upon the short-fibre spinning 
system. This is borne out by a knowledge of the cotton 
industry in India, in which the flax wheel plays no part, all 
the spinning being done on the simple spindle wheel. This 
rendered cotton spinning a relatively difficult process as 
compared with either linen or long wool spinning ; hence 
the comparatively small number of people engaged in the 
industry prior to the mechanical era. But the introduction 
of the various automatic drawing and spinning machines 
rendered possible the drawing and spinning of cotton on 
the long-fibre principle ; in fact it is practically true to say 
that the cotton industry is a machine-created industry. It 
would probably always have remained small but for the 
introduction of mechanical methods. It would also be 
interesting to investigate to what extent the short or Botany 
wool industry is a machine-created industry. It is true 
that woollen yarns were spun from short wools prior to the 
mechanical era, but the short wool worsted yarn is evidently 
a creation of the mechanical era ; and consequently to this 
mechanical development must the large demand for Botany 
wools be attributed. That this is so is proved by the fact 
that the largest increases in the production of these yarns 
have taken place since the perfecting of the necessary 
preparatory machinery and the machine wool comb specially 
adapted for short wool combing, i.e., between 1840 and 1880, 
although short Botany wools were previously largely 
employed in the clothing and woollen trade. 

During the past twenty-five or thirty years many 
endeavours have been made to produce a frame yielding 
yarn possessing the same characteristics as yarn spun upon 
the mule. If such a frame could be produced a great 



112 TEXTILES 

saving in space and a markedly increased output would be 
effected, since such a frame would be a continuous spinner, 
whereas the mule is an intermittent spinner. The difficul- 
ties to be faced are principally these : — Firstly, the continuous 
drafting of the sliver along with the insertion of the 
necessary drafting-twist ; secondly, the insertion of the 
true thread twist ; thirdly, the construction of a frame as 
easy to follow — to piecen up broken ends on — as the mule ; 
and fourthly, a frame as inexpensive in both initial cost 
and in following as the mule. One of the first attempts 
was that made by Celestin Martin, of Verviers, in which a 
" twizzler " to insert false drafting-twist is placed between 
two pairs of drafting rollers, and a ring-frame arrangement 
placed to receive, twist and form a cop of the drafted but 
twistless yarn as delivered by the second pair of rollers. 
This machine, although enxployed to a considerable extent 
on the Continent, cannot be considered entirely satisfactory. 
The drafting being effected or supported by false twist is 
very different in character from that obtaining on the mule. 
Again, the vibration which runs along the thread in mule 
spinning owing to the thickness and inclination of the 
spindles is not attempted here. Again, the final twisting 
conditions obtaining on the mule do not in the least 
obtain here ; and finally, the difficulties of piecening up 
are greater. 

In Fig. 18 the latest style of mule-frame is shown. In 
this it will be noted that the " twizzle " (B) is placed 
practically upright and has two projections upon it. This 
is to give the " vibration " or short pulls to the thread which 
no doubt plays such an important^ part in spindle-drafting 
on the mule. This form of twizzle, however, obviously 



THE PBINCIPLES OF SPINNING 



113 




114 TEXTILES 

increases the difficulties of piecening up. Arrangements are 
also made in this machine to make the drafting intermittent, 
but the twisting and winding on to the bobbin are continuous. 
As the main point in production lies in the twisting, this 
appears to be a move in the right direction. The conditions 
of final twisting, however, are the same as in the Celestin 
Martin's frame, and will probably result in a different yarn 
being produced as compared with the genuine mule-spun 
yarn. Considering the economic effect in the space occupied 
and the possibly greater production owing to the continuous 
action of the frame, it seems probable that this frame may 
be wisely and economically employed for the spinning of 
certain classes of woollen yarns, although its initial cost per 
spindle will probably be much greater than the mule. 

In another frame of a similar style bars are inserted 
between tbe back and front rollers, near to the back rollers, 
with the idea of limiting the "run-up" of the twist in the 
thread, so that drafting may be more readily effected. 
This, however, shows a total want of perception as to the 
fundamental principles of spindle- draft. 

Again the difficulty was supposed to be solved by the 
addition of an apparatus to the condenser, which took the 
slivers directly from the ring doffer — thus obtaining a " free- 
end " — and twisted them into what were called threads. 
As there was no draft at all in this case the resultant 
strands were simply twisted slivers and not spun threads. 

From these attempts it would appear that for tbe 
spinning of characteristic woollen yarns — especially fine 
yarns with much twist — the woollen mule is not at all 
likely to be superseded, x 



CHAPTER VI 

PROCESSES PREPARATORY TO SPINNING 

In the foregoing chapter the various principles of spin- 
ning have been fully considered on the supposition that both 
long and short fibres of various classes were available for 
spinning. No account, however, was taken of the fact that 
in no case, with the partial exception of silk, are either the 
long or short fibres of commerce found naturally in a con- 
dition suitable for being spun into yarn. In fact, the 
variation in length in most materials necessitates a comb- 
ing operation to classify the fibres which may be satis- 
factorily spun together, long spinning well with long, and 
short with short, but not long with short. Again, all 
contain either impurities natural to their growth or 
accidental impurities which get into the mass of fibres and 
must be removed before spinning can be attempted. In 
the first class the cortical substance in flax, the gums in 
China-grass, the yolk in wool, the gum in silk and the 
seeds in cotton, may be cited. In the second class water, 
beyond a certain amount, in flax, wool, and cotton ; and 
burrs, seeds, straw, and sand in wool may be cited. What- 
ever the impurity be, it is usually necessary to remove it 
with the least possible damage to the fibre and to leave 
the fibre in a condition for being spun into a good useful 
yarn as already defined. 

i 2 



116 



TEXTILES 



The processes preparatory to spinning are very varied, 
naturally being suited to each particular fibre. The prin- 
ciples involved, however, are all comprised in the following 
machines, 1 the action of which will be described after 
the natural requirements of the various fibres have been 
considered. 



Machine. 
The Gin . 
The Washing or Scouring 

Machine 
The Dryer 
The Scutcher . 

The Backwasher 
The Gill-box . 

The Carder . 

The Dresser 
The Comb 



The Drawing-Box . 
The Cone Drawing-Box . 
The French Gill or 
Drawing-Box 



Materials for which Ebiployed. 
. For cotton. 

Wools and hairs. 
Wools, hairs, etc. 

(a) For cotton. 

(b) For flax. 

Worsted slivers and tops. 
Long wools and silk (modified 

form). 
Medium and short wools and 

cotton. 
Waste silk and China-grass. 
Wool, cotton, and sometimes 

silk and China-grass. 
Wool, cotton, and silk. 
Wool and cotton 



Short wools. 



The important points to study about these machines 
are, firstly, the principle underlying their construction ; 
secondly, the way the material should be prepared for 
presentation to these machines ; x and, thirdly, the way in 

1 Net Silk Machining is treated separately in Chapter XV. 



PEOCESSES PEEPAEATOEY TO SPINNING 117 

which these machines should deliver the material ready for 
the ensuing process or processes. Before dealing with 
these points, however, the natural requirements of each 
fibre should be considered, as it must always be the fibre 
which decides the type of preparing machine — even iron 
and steel must conform to soft cotton and wool, lustrous 
silk and harsh China-grass. Thus in the preparation of 
cotton and wool for spinning on the short-fibre principle 
good carding is so important that the resultant spin may 
absolutely be said to depend upon it. In the preparation 
of flax and certain other vegetable fibres for spinning on 
the long-fibre principle satisfactory retting, scutching and 
dressing are equally important. In the preparation of long 
animal fibres such as English wool, mohair, and alpaca, as 
also in the case of the " combed " cottons, an averaging of 
the fibres by means of the operation of combing — which in 
turn has its preparatory processes in the form of carding or 
preparing — is necessary to ensure a satisfactory spin. It is 
obviously impossible to say that any one process is the most 
important in the sequence ; each operation must be worked to 
the best advantage if good results are to be finally attained. 

Four Methods of Preparing Vegetable Fibres for Spinning. — 
To ensure satisfactory results in the spinning it has been 
found necessary to employ at least four distinct methods of 
preparation for the various types of vegetable fibres, each 
of these methods having been naturally evolved through 
experience with the respective fibres to which each is best 
suited. These four methods are as follows : — 

1. Air-blast V reparation? — This is chiefly employed for 

1 See p. 128 for description of ginning machine, the first machine 
employed in cotton. 



118 TEXTILES 

cottons, being the main principle of the openers, scutchers, 
and perhaps not altogether inactive in the carders. The 
initial stages of the preparation are usually followed by 
carding, sometimes combing (as explained in the chapter 
on the Cotton Industry), and then drawing as directly 
preparatory to spinning. 

2. Retting Preparation. — This is chiefly employed for 
flax and a few analogous fibres, in which the fermenta- 
tion due to steeping in peaty water, or perhaps "dew 
retting," is sufficient to destroy the cortical substance 
in the flax stems and thus render fairly free the fibrous 
portion. Scutching to further loosen any cortical particles 
still adhering, and dressing, complete the cleaning 
preparation of the fibres, which are then got into sliver 
form, as in the case of long wools, etc., and finally 
drawn and spun on the long-fibre principle as already 
explained. 

3. Scraping Preparation. — This method is employed for 
such fibres as Eamie and China-grass, in which no form of 
retting is altogether satisfactory, probably owing to the 
gums which act as firm binding or integrating agents. 
Not only is a good scraping in running water usually 
necessary, but " degumming " by means of caustic soda or 
other reagents is also necessary later. Once the "filasse " 
is in a really fibrous and clean state it may be treated 
somewhat on the flax principle, or, better still, on what is 
known as the " spun silk principle," in which an averaging 
up of the fibres is effected by a process known as " dress- 
ing" (see p. 126) followed by sliver forming arrangements 
similar to those employed for long wool, and spinning on 
the long fibre principle. 



PEOCESSES PEEPAEATOEY TO SPINNING 119 

The Noble comb is sometimes employed in place of the 
dressing frame, but is not nearly so effective. 

4. Artificial Preparation. — As artificial silk spinning is 
here in question and as most artificial silks are formed 
from vegetable matter, such processes should claim con- 
sideration here. The spinning referred to is not really 
spinning, it is rather a drawing-out of a prepared wood or 
cotton pulp into a fine filament which, hardening on exposure 
to the air or by special treatment, thus becomes a fine 
strand and is later twisted or "thrown " with other strands 
to form in turn a true thread. As the later principles 
involved are those of silk throwing no further description is 
here called for. It is interesting to note, however, that 
artificial flax is now being placed on the market, and no 
doubt other varieties of such fibres or filaments will follow. 

Four Methods of Preparing Animal Fibres for Spinning. — 
As animal fibres are usually delivered into the hands of the 
spinner in a fibrous state, their preparation is different from 
that of flax, etc. ; on the one hand by reason of the absence of 
the necessity for mechanical treatment, and on the other 
hand in that certain adhering impurities must be removed 
by certain chemical or chemico-physical operations, the 
washing or scouring of the wool, etc., being the chief of 
these. This operation of scouring, however — take what 
care one will — frequently so mats the wool or hair that 
special machines must be employed to disentangle it and 
constitute it into a sliver suitable for spinning from on the 
short-fibre principle or a sliver suitable for spinning from 
on the long-fibre principle. 

The four methods of preparation employed for wool and 
hairs are as follows : — 



120 



TEXTILES 



1. The Woollen Method.— In this case willowing, teasing, 
scribbling, and carding result in the wool being delivered 
as a broad continuous film— with fibres perfectly dis- 




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tributed— to the condenser which breaks the broad film of, 
say, 48 to 72 inches up into 6Cf to 120 pith-like fila- 
ments — not threads, as there is no twist in them which 



PROCESSES PEEPAEATOEY TO SPINNING 121 

are continuously wound on to the condenser bobbins, which 
in turn are transferred to the mule to be spun into threads 
by additional draft and twist. (See Fig. 19.) 

2. The Botany Worsted Method. — Fine, fairly short 
wools which later may be spun on the long-fibre principle 
are carded to obtain an even distribution of the fibres in 
the sliver delivered from the card. But the carding opera- 
tion no doubt tends in part to arrange the fibres longi- 
tudinally in the sliver, being aided in this by the way in 
which the sliver is drawn off the machine as compared 
with the delivery of the sliver from a woollen card. The 
combing operation now follows, being undertaken with the 
idea of taking away the short fibres, termed " noil," and thus 
leaving in the slivers to be spun only the fibres of a good 
average length. Gill-boxes and drawing-boxes then effect 
the " straightening " necessary before spinning can be 
satisfactorily undertaken, the two principles of " doublings " 
and " draft " being applied with the idea of obtaining a level 
sliver which will spin out to the required count. The 
excess of draft over doublings gives the reduction in thick- 
ness of sliver. The knowing when to double and when 
to draft to obtain level slivers is still only imperfectly 
understood. (See Figs. 20 and 20a.) 

3. The English Worsted Method. — Long wools and hairs 
such as mohair, alpaca, etc., are treated on this system. 
although it is well to note that there is a marked tendency 
to prepare by carding much longer wools than was formerly 
the case. These long-fibred materials are gilled as a pre- 
paration for combing and combed on the Lister or Noble 
comb. Gill-boxes and drawing-boxes then effect the neces- 
sary "straightening" prior to spinning, doubling and 



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PROCESSES PREPARATORY TO SPINNING 



123 



drafting being applied very much as in the case of Botany 
wools, but as a rule there are fewer operations. 

4. The French Worsted Method. — The shortest and finest 
Botany wools are prepared for spinning on this method, 
the principle being that the wool is treated in an open 
condition without twist by drafting rollers throughout, 
twist being unnecessary. Of course special support and 





Single used Single used for 
for Tram. organziue. 



Organzine 
(2-siugle). 



Tram 

(2-single). 



Eig. 21. — Graphic Illustration of Net Silk Yarns. 

control of the wool during drafting and a special form of 
delivery are necessary. The worsted mule almost invariably 
forms the climax to this method, although there is a ques- 
tion as to whether spinning on the cap principle may not 
yield economical and useful results. 

Two Methods of Silk Preparation. — The special charac- 
teristics of silk are its gumminess and its " slipperiness." 
These two factors play an important part in deciding the 
processes through which the fibre shall pass. The two 



124 



TEXTH.ES 



great methods of preparation are designed for the ''net" 
silks and the "waste " silks respectively, the "net" silks 
requiring a " continuous fibre process " and the waste silks 
simply a "long-fibre process." 

1. The Continuous Fibre Silk Process. — In this case the 




12. — Spun Silk Drafts (the horizontal divisions = 1 inch). A, B, 
, D, E, and F are 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th drafts ; G, the 



Fig. 22 

< 

shorts, aud H the noil. 



fibre is simply reeled from the cocoon its full length, 
cleaned, softened, and " thrown " with other fibres, twist 
being inserted according to requirements, quantity and 
direction being important matters to attend to (see Fig. 21). 
In this case the preparation for the spinning or " throw- 
ing " is very similar to the actual throwing operation. 
Deguinining is effected with soap and hot water, and may 



PEOCESSES PEEPAEATOEY TO SPINNING 125 

be carried out either after spinning or advantageously 
after weaving, as the silk gum strengthens the thread and 
results in better work right away through the processes. The 




Eig. 22a. — Stages in China Grass Spinning. A, stem of Boehmeria 
Tenacissima ; B, decorticated fibrous mass ; C, degummed and 
bleached filasse ; T), dressed filasse ; E, shorts ; F, noil ; Gr, sliver 
from spreader ; H and 1, slivers from intermediate boxes ; J, the 
roving ; and K the spun thread. 

necessity for dyeing and the difficulty of degumming cer- 
tain fabrics result in large quantities of silk being woven 
in the degummed form. 



126 TEXTILES 

2. The Long-Fibre Silk Process. — In this case the fibres, 
although long — say 8 inches to 12 inches — are not continuous. 
They may be prepared and got into fairly satisfactory sliver 
form by rollers and gills (which are usually of the intersect- 
ing type to control them better), but to spin them satisfactorily 
the fibres must be averaged up on the dressing-frame — i.e., 
separated, say, into seven lots or " drafts," as they are 
termed, according to the length of fibre, the first draft 
being, say, 12 inches, the second 10 inches, and so on (see 
Fig. 22). The slippery nature of the silk fibre necessitates 
its treatment on the " dressing-frame " ; in fact, this fibre 
has given rise to the dressing-frame, which now is not only 
employed for silk, but also very largely for China-grass 
(see Fig. 22a). 

The still shorter or real waste silk may be again carded 
up and prepared and spun upon the Botany worsted 
method. 

Typical Example of the Method of Preparing and 
Spinning a Textile Material (China-grass or Ramie). 

Ramie Manufacture : Order of Processes. 

la. Decorticating usually on plantation while stems are 
green. 

1. Boiling with caustic soda, etc. 

2. Bleaching — ordinary method. 

3. Washing. 

4. Hydro-extracting. 

5. Heat drying — without confusion of " fibre-bundles." 

6. Roller-softening. Through/ rollers — 6 inches for- 

ward, 3 inches backward, etc. 



PROCESSES PREPARATORY TO SPINNING 127 

7. Carding and fibre cutting process. 18 combs. Cuts 

at 7f inches. 

8. Dressing between 32 corks on flat dressing-frame with 

stripping drums. 

9. Spreading or gilling (intersecting gills). Lap-drum 

3 feet in diameter. Batch=ll inches to 12 inches. 
Fallers occupy space of 8 inches. Two passages. 

10. Gilling (ordinary). Batch 11 inches to 12 inches. 

Fallers occupy space of 8 inches. 

11. Drawing on open-gill — 4 heads. Eatch 11 inches to 

12 inches. Fallers occupy space of 8 inches. 

12. Eoving on 40 spindle frame. 1 sliver up. Ratch 

10 inches to 11 inches. Fallers occupy space of 
7} inches. 

13. Doubling on 60 spindle frame. 2 to 4 slivers up. 

Carriers in place of gills. 

14. Hot water spinning on 300 spindle ring frame. 

Ratch of 10 inches. 

15. Dry twisting on 272 spindle ring frame. 

16. Gassing on gassing frame. 

17. Reeling. 

18. Bundling. 



PREPABATOBY MACHINES 

Each of the machines previously mentioned must now 
be briefly described, when the reader will no doubt be able 
to adjust the requirements of any particular fibre to the 
mechanical principles of any required machine, or vice 

vCi'sd, 



128 TEXTILES 

The Cotton Gin. — This machine in its simplest form con- 
sists of a roller with a broad steel blade sprung against it. 
The roller draws the cotton round between itself and the 
blade, and the seeds, being large and hard, instead of fol- 
lowing are freed from the cotton fibre and drop off into a 
receptacle arranged for them (Figs. 23 and 23a). 




Fig. 23.— Cotton Gin. 

The Washing or Sconring Machine. — This primarily con- 
sists of a bowl for holding the heated scouring liquor in 
which the wool is to be cleansed by immersion. This 
appears very simple, but a few moments' thought will 
show that some complexity is inevitable. The liquor must 
be maintained at a definite heat, hence steam must be laid 
on ; it will also be advisable to lay on water, soap liquor and 



PROCESSES PREPARATORY TO SPINNING 



129 



possibly alkali, so that perfect control of the temperature, 
heat, and strength of the liquor is obtained. 

The yolk, sand, dirt, etc., got out of the wool must be 
disposed of. Thus, satisfactory means of emptying the 
bowls must be adopted, drain pipes being suitably fixed 
to the bowl or bowls to deliver the liquor to the settling or 
waste product tanks. 




Fig. 23a.— Section of Single Macarthy Cotton Gin. 



But, again, during the operation of scouring the dirt and 
grease, etc., should be got away from the wool entering the 
bowl, this being usually effected by the settling which takes 
place by floating the liquor out with the wool and arranging 
for a tank at the side for the grease, sand, dirt, etc., to settle 
into, but so constructed that it may be readily cleaned out. 

The propelling of the wool from one end of the tank to 
the other and especially taking it out of the machine 

t. - K 



130 TEXTILES 

are also matters which require very careful thought and 
arrangement. 

Scouring sets now frequently consist of four or five 
machines giving about 60 to 80 feet of bowl, in which the 
wool is immersed on an average for about eight minutes. 

It may be interesting here to give a brief resume of the 
evolution through which wool scouring has passed. 

The first idea was to pass the wool rapidly through the 
scouring liquor ; this matted the wool, prevented perfect 
scouring, and resulted in bad work throughout all subsequent 
processes. 

Then the idea of forcing the scouring liquor through the 
wool was tried, with a very similar result. 

Then it was realized that the natural tendency of wool 
to open out when placed in water — when the surface 
tension was removed — must be made the basis of wool 
scouring, and the wool was floated along with the scouring 
liquor. 

Then the idea of a wet nip or " possers " was tried and found 
wanting, a wet nip apparently nipping dirt into the wool. 

Finally it was realized that a combination of circum- 
stances and conditions was necessary, that attention must 
be paid to all points, and the bearing of one point upon 
another fully taken account of. Thus were evolved the 
sets of modern wool- scouring machines in which the neces- 
sary agitation may be obtained, but which deliver the wool 
free, clean and wonderfully dry. 

Modifications of wool-scouring machines to effect " wool 
steeping," and thereby reclaim the valuable potash salts, 
are also placed upon the market. x 

The Dryer. — There are several forms of drying machine, 



PROCESSES PREPARATORY TO SPINNING 131 




o 






k 2 



132 



TEXTILES 



such being necessary in the case of English and cross-bred 
wools after scouring and also useful in such operations 
as carbonizing. The drying machine has followed an 
evolution similar to the scouring machine. The material 
to be dried has been held and air forced through it — as in 
the case of the table dryer ; the material to be dried has 
been carried into the drying air, and last, and perhaps best 
of all, the mean between the two has been adopted as in the 
latest form of McNaught dryer. 




Fig. 24a. — Section of Single Cotton Scutcher. 



The Cotton Scutcher. — This is a machine to thoroughly 
disintegrate and clean the cotton prior to carding. Briefly 
it consists of " cage " rollers upon which the cotton is 
blown, which pass it forward until eventually it is delivered 
as a lap. Suitably arranged "grids" allow sand and 
heavy foreign matters to drop out of the air currents ; 
thus the cotton is fairly well cleaned and freed prior to 
carding (Figs. 24 and 24a). 

The Flax Scutcher. — This is a machine to beat and break 
the flax straw after retting so that it is in a suitable state 
for the dressing frame. It is practically a " breaker " of 
the flax straw and also a partial cleanser (Fig. 25). 



PROCESSES PBEPAKATORY TO SPINNING 133 

The Backwasher. — This machine usually consists of two 
small washing or scouring tanks, drying cylinders, and 




Fm. 25.— The Flax Scutcher. 
a straightening gill-box. It is made in several forms, for 
each type certain constructional advantages or advantages 



134 



TEXTILES 




o 

EH 



PEOCESSES PEEPAEATOEY TO SPINNING 135 

for the material treated being claimed. It is employed 
either before (in England) or after (in France) combing 
to thoroughly clean worsted slivers or " tops," for not only 
does the wool become sullied in passing through the several 
preparing machines, but impurities which cannot be 
extracted in the scouring bowls have revealed themselves 
and may here be conveniently got rid of. The process of 
" blueing " to give a white appearance to the slivers or tops 
is frequently resorted to, and is usually effected on the 
backwasher. The latest innovation in this machine is the 
adoption of hot air drying in place of cylinder drying 
(see Fig. 26). 

The Preparing Gill-box. — This consists of a pair of back 
rollers, gills or fallers riding on screws, and front rollers, 
with feed sheet and lap, balling-head or can delivery. 
The action on the wool may be either a combing action or 
principally a drawing action. For example, when wool is 
much matted the fallers, working quicker than the back 
rollers, comb out the fibres and deliver them to the front 
rollers, which should be set to the fallers. But when the 
material has been much worked and is fairly straight, the 
faller-pins simply slip through the fibres and consequently 
can only act as supports between back and front rollers ; in 
other words, the operation becomes largely a drawing 
operation. 

As pointed out with reference to cotton, the distance apart 
of drawing rollers, size of rollers, etc., must be very care- 
fully considered. With wool the ratch or distance between 
back rollers and fallers or back rollers and from; rollers is 
equally important, but as the wool fibre is so much larger 
than the cotton fibre the size of the rollers need only be 



136 



TEXTILES 



taken into account from a wear and tear and possibly 
from the grip and weighting points of view. 

The Preparing Gill-box may be best considered as an 




Eig. 27. — Plan and Elevation of Sheeter Grill-box. A, back 
rollers ; B, fallers set with pins (gills) ; 0, front rollers ; 
D, sheeting leathers ; E, train of wheels driving front 
rollers ; F, train of wheels driving back rollers ; G, 
screws driving the fallers or gills. 

admirable straightener for wool and the various long animal 
fibres, and also as a mixer for fibres^of varying qualities or 
colours (see Figs. 27 and 27a). 




Fig. 27a. — Four-head French Gill-box in Plan and Elevation. 
A, creel; B, back drafting rollers; 0, pinned fallers or 
gills ; D, front drafting rollers ; E, balling head. 



13s 



TEXTILES 




The Carder. — This machine has been evolved from the 
hand-cards, such as are still used in the home industries 
of Scotland and Ireland. The first step towards an auto- 



PEOCESSES PEEPAEATOEY TO SPINNING 139 

matic card was made when a cylinder — which might be 
turned by hand — was clothed with card-clothing and the 
wool worked between this cylinder and a flat card held in 
the hand. This early form of card gave rise to the flat and 
the revolving flat cards still largely employed in the cotton 
trade. Finally the whole of the carding was effected by 
cards mounted upon cylinders, and after many trials, 
involving both successes and failures, the modern roller card 
was evolved. It is here interesting to note that, owing to the 
susceptibility of cotton to air blasts, the cotton roller card 
is invariably made narrow and enclosed more than is the 
wool card ; while, as a matter of fact, probably due to this, 
and also to the fibre length, the flat card seems the favourite 
for cotton (see Fig. 28). 

In working carding machinery there are two main points 
to be attended to, viz., the satisfactory carding of the 
material and the designing and arrangements of the various 
parts to work to the greatest advantage with the least 
possible wear and tear. The satisfactory carding of the 
material depends in the first place upon the principle upon 
which the card works. This in the case of the roller card 
is as follows : — The swift acts as the main carrying cylinder 
constantly endeavouring to pass the wool forward, but is 
opposed by the teeth of the workers, which, acting as a sort 
of sieve, do not allow material to pass them until it is 
finely divided up. Thus from beginning to end of a card 
the workers should be set closer and closer — the first 
worker a fair way off, the last close to the wires of the 
swift, but never touching. 1 Thus material is really worked 

1 This is not quite true, as in carding niungo, etc., the wires are 
set to run into one another. 



140 



TEXTILES 




Worsted Card 



FlG. 29. — Illustrating the Sizes of Cylinders in Cards for 
Carding Various Qualities of Wool. 



PEOCESSES PEEPAEATOET TO SPINNING 



141 





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PEOCESSES PEEPAEATOEY TO SPINNING 143 

by material. The material is condensed or " doubled " on 
the workers and then elongated or drafted by the strippers, 
and again by the swift stripping from the strippers. This 
is the carding operation ; feed-rollers, licker-in, fancy 
and doffer being the means of conducting wool into and 
out of the machine. It will be noticed that the satisfactory 
accomplishment of the operation just described depends 
upon (a) the surface speeds of the rollers, which in part 
necessarily influence the size of these rollers ; (b) the 
direction in which the rollers revolve ; (c) the inclination 
or bend of the card teeth; and (d) upon the relative density 
of the card-teeth with which the various rollers are clothed. 
The wear and tear upon a card depend largely upon the 
size of the rollers, and of course upon the practical setting. 

The material of which the cards are built is of course 
another important matter, but ordinary engineering 
principles here apply. Iron is more stable than wood but 
is readily broken, while wood is more convenient but does 
not long remain " true." The following diagrams and lists 
will illustrate the principles of carding and of satisfactorily 
clothing the card cylinders (see Figs. 29, 30, and 31). 

The Dresser. — This machine takes the place of the comb 
when the material is (a) too rough, as in the case of flax, to 
be satisfactorily combed; or (b) too slippery, as in the case 
of silk and china-grass, to be satisfactorily combed. 

Briefly, it consists of a series of boards, books or holders 
between which one end of the material to be dressed is 
firmly clamped and held; a framework upon which these 
boards may be fixed so as to be carried continuously into 
the machine or placed in the machine and withdrawn 
when necessary; and a series of cleansing combs with 



144 



TEXTILES 




PEOCESSES PREPARATORY TO SPINNING 145 

cleaning or noil arrangements so that they may work to 
the greatest advantage. 

The material may be presented upwards to the combs as 
in the case of silk, or downwards as in the case of flax. 
In the case of silk-dressing the operation is undertaken 
more with the idea of averaging the fibres into the several 
different "drafts" ; in the case of flax the operation partakes 
more of a cleansing character (see Fig. 32). 

The Comb. — While combing may in part be said to be 
based upon the idea of averaging up the fibres, still more 




ElG. 33. — Position of Large and Two Small Circles in the 
Noble Comb. 

truly may it be said to consist in combing out all fibres 
under a certain length, leaving the long or top wool to form 
what is termed the "top" and the short to form "noil." 
Along with combing, as with dressing, must go a straighten- 
ing operation; in fact, in the days of the hand comb, the 
second combing was termed " straightening." 

There are two types of comb in use, the horizontal cir- 
cular and the vertical circular. The Noble comb is the best 
representation of the horizontal circular (Figs. 33 and 33a). 
The combing operation here is based upon the drawing out 
of the long fibres between the diverging circles until the 
one having the shortest end as it were leaves go, leaving the 

t. l 



146 



TEXTILES 




Eig. 33a. — Self-supporting Noble Comb, latest Form. 

long fibres hanging on the outside of the small circle and 
the inside of the large circle, from which they are drawn 
off by suitably placed rollers. The noil in the meantime 



PEOCBSSES PREPARATORY TO SPINNING 



147 



o a . 



oooooo 



°oo oooooooooO 



oo^l. 




^ 00 / BSOODBODDODODDD ^°" DDDDOanaQOOOOC 

""""mooDoooDDODDDDonaDoooooDnDnoi 00000 

' [ " D[ " ,0DO ''°"»DDDD00 D D 0nD0DnaaD 1 lDDDDDO0ODDl)BDOODODl)0ODBllD O OOa 
OOD00D0DOOD 0DDDOOD[I000tIQOQUDDOaDDDDOaDaDa0ODOD00DQODO0DDO 
"OOOOODODDDoaoOQDOOOOGOODOODnnDDaOODOOaoQDaDODOO 

00 o oooooooooooooooooooooOOOOOOOO 
°°000000O0OOOOO000O0OO00000000000O 

° o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 
°oooooooooooooooooooooooo 

Oo °oooooooooooooooooooooo oooooo 



°°oooooooooooooooooooo 

Pig. 34. — Pricking from a Long Wool Noble Comb Circle. Note. — Por 
a Botany Comb tbe " set over " for A is §", the " set over" for 
B is If". 

has been held within the pins, and ultimately is taken off 
from between the pins of the small circles by what are 
known as noil knives. The pinning of Noble comb circles 

l 2 



Fibre xL 



9. 
32 



Spaqe 



Pin ; 
-031"-*, 



Fig. 34a.— View of Wool Fibre in the Pins of a Noble Comb. Drawn 

to scale. 



PEOCESSES PEEPAEATOEY TO SPINNING 149 

should be definitely based upon the diameter of the pin 
and the space to leave in between for the fairly free running 
of the fibres — say, one-fourth pin to three-fourths space. 

As the satisfactory holding of the fibres by the pins is 
the basis of the Noble comb, it will be realized that, not 
only must the distance apart and thickness of the pins be 
taken into account, but also the set-over or space over which 
the pins are set (see Figs. 34 and 34a). 

The Heilman comb in its various forms is the best 
example of the vertical circular comb. Briefly, it consists 
of a pair of jaws to hold a tuft of fibres, a comb cylinder to 
comb one end of this tuft, a pair of rollers to take hold of 
the combed end, combs through which the uncombed end 
may be drawn and thus combed, and a continuous lap 
forming arrangement. As in most combs the operation of 
combing must be more or less gradual, the comb cylinder 
here employed has the first row of teeth fairly openly set, 
the next closer, and so on, the finest being set about 60 per 
inch for wool and about 80 for cotton. There is also a 
preparation of the sliver for combing prior to the jaws 
referred to coming into action. 

The Drawing-box. — This is similar in many respects 
to the gill-box, but lacks the gills or fallers, their 
place being taken by carriers which support the wool 
between back and front rollers. The distance between back 
and front rollers is usually somewhat greater than the 
length of the longest fibre being treated, so that in part 
fibre may be said to be worked by fibre (see Fig. 35). 

The Cone Drawing-box. — So far as the drawing action of 
this box is concerned the action is the same as in the 
ordinary box. As remarked, however, with reference to 




El eva ti on. 
Fig. 35. — Plan and Elevation of a Drawing-box. 



PROCESSES PREPARATORY TO SPINNING 



151 




the scouring machine, the getting of the material into the 
machine and out of the machine again may be no trifling 
matter ; in fact it may be and in this case is more of a 
problem than the main operation itself. To put the matter 



162 



TEXTILES 



briefly — in a cone-box the material is positively wound 
on to suitable sized bobbins with practically no strain upon 
it, while in the case of the ordinary drawing-box twist must 




Fig. 37. — French Drawing Frame in Plan and Elevation. — A, back 
drafting rollers ; B, porcupine ; C, front drafting rollers ; D, 
rubbing leathers ; E, balling bead. 

be put into the sliver to give it sufficient strength to pull 
the bobbin round. It is thus evident that with a cone- 
regulated wind-on two great advantages accrue — firstly, the 



PROCESSES PREPARATORY TO SPINNING 



153 



slivers may be drawn much softer and thus a better final 
spin obtained, and less consumption of power in the machine 
be required ; and secondly, larger bobbins may be employed, 
resulting in more economical working, especially for large 
quantities. It is also interesting to note that as both 
flyer and bobbin are positively driven, bobbin may lead 
flyer instead of flyer leading the bobbin as ordinarily obtains." 
The relative advantages of these two methods are worthy 
of careful consideration. 

It is interesting to note that with the cone frame the 




Eig. 37a. — Enlarged Yiew of principal parts in a Erench Drawing-box. 

limit of the strength of the sliver is not in the winding on 
to the bobbin, but in the pulling of the sliver or roving off 
the bobbin (see Fig. 36). 

The French Drawing-hox. — This consists of back-rollers (A), 
porcupine or circular gill or fibre controller (B), front 
rollers (C), rubbing leathers (D), and delivering head (E) 
(Figs. 37 and 37a). No twist is here inserted, so that a pith- 
like thread is produced. The arrangement enables doubling 
and drafting to be effected most readily, and practically does 
away with the necessity for gills working on screws. The 
value of this method of producing soft spin mixtures has 
probably not yet been fully realized in this country. 



CHAPTEK VII 

THE PRINCIPLES OF WEAVING 

As previously remarked, the art of weaving, or perhaps 
more correctly the art of "interlacing," preceded that of 
spinning. The " wattles " we read of in connection with 
early methods of building were no doubt willow or other 
pliant stems of trees or plants interlaced to form a firm 
foundation for plastering upon. Baskets were similarly 
made from twigs of suitable thickness, and many other 
interlacings no doubt preceded the actual art of weaving in 
the evolution of every race and every country. The idea of 
actuating in two series all the strands running in one direc- 
tion, forming a " warp," would soon develop where strands 
or threads of any required length were forthcoming to form 
the warp from. The half-heald worked by hand would 
then appear, followed by the f ull-heald bringing the feet into 
play as an aid to the hands. The method of throwing the 
weft through successive sheds or openings of the warp- 
threads would similarly pass through many stages before 
arriving at the present day shuttle and picking apparatus ; 
indeed the fly shuttle itself only appeared in 1738. At 
first the whole length of warp would be stretched out upon 
the ground and the weaver would advance as he interlaced 
the weft from one end of the piece'to the other. The idea 
of beaming the warp on to a roller and of winding up the 



THE PEINCIPLES OF WEAVING 155 

cloth as woven in order that the weaver might remain 
seated in one position and thus work to the greatest advan- 
tage is still in embryo in some semi- civilised districts. It 
is more than probable that long before the hand-loom was 
in any sense developed very elaborate textures were pro- 
duced — very laboriously it is true — by hand, almost thread 
by thread and pick by pick. The art of gauze weaving, for 
example, was perfectly known to the Egyptians, as in 
mummy cloths we find some really elaborate styles of this 
order of interlacing. Pile weaving would also be practised 
in very narrow fabrics or ribbons. Thus it may be said 
that the art of weaving passed from the stage when very 
simple means were employed to effect interlacing, to the 
stage when very complex hand processes were employed 
in producing elaborate design; then through a stage in 
which endeavours were made to markedly increase the 
output by the hand method, finally culminating in the auto- 
matic production of fabrics on the power-loom. It may 
safely be said that so far as we can tell all the most 
intricate and pleasing methods of weaving by hand came 
to England from the Continent of Europe. On the other 
hand most of the mechanical methods of reproducing the 
somewhat complicated hand methods went from this country 
to the Continent. Of course there are exceptions to this, 
but such are exceedingly few and really trivial. 

To-day it may be said that there are practically three 
kinds of weaving, viz. : — Unit Weaving, as illustrated in 
Axminster carpets ; Group Unit Weaving, as illustrated 
in the ordinary loom ; and Average Weaving, as illustrated 
in Lappet weaving and in the Electric Jacquard. 

The Axminster carpet method of weaving is simply an 



156 TEXTILES 

imitation of the Oriental knot, as practised in the making of 
Turkey carpets and in certain Gobelins tapestries, both hand 
productions. The weaver — if such he may be termed — 
simply selects from his bundle of yarn the right colour for 
a small denned section of the carpet he is making, and 
knots this yarn into that section. As there is no limit to 
the colours employed and as the structure is firm and well 
knotted together, the result obtained is usually magnifi- 
cent. The Axminster carpet loom follows this hand method 
as exactly as possible. As each individual thread (or per- 
haps pair of threads) is "latched" by another distinct 
thread, hence the term " unit" weaving. 

The group-unit system results from arranging as many 
threads as possible in a warp to interlace in the same way, 
and then to fix these upon the same apparatus — usually 
a heald-shaft — which thus very simply works them all 
together exactly as required. Thus if there are 2,000 ends 
in a warp and plain cloth is to be produced, the odd ends to 
the number of 1,000 will be mounted on one heald-shaft, 
and the even ends to the number of 1,000 upon another 
heald-shaft. Thus each thread is a unit to itself, but there 
is a grouping of units to effect simplification in production. 
This system is by far the most frequently employed, and 
consequently will be dealt with at some length later. 

The average weaving method is quite distinct from the 
other two methods, as no attempt is here made to work 
each thread with absolute accuracy as in the other two 
methods. In certain Electric Jacquards, 1 for example, a 
rough selection of the threads in accordance with the 

1 Carver's Electric Jacquard, at present being tried in the linen 
districts of Ireland, is an excellent example of this system. 



THE PEINCIPLES OF WEAVING 157 

requirements of the design is effected, while in the case of 
the Lappet frame, although an endeavour is made to work so 
accurately that each needle places its thread precisely in 
the cloth, still a rough averaging up only is attained. 
With more perfect mechanical appliances it is just possible 
that this system will be much more fully utilised in 
the" future. The Szczepanik designing and card-cutting 
apparatus forms an interesting attempt in this direction. 

Group-Unit Weaving. — In this method of weaving it is 
obviously necessary that all previous processes to the 
actual weaving should be perfectly carried out if really 
satisfactory weaving is to be the result. The first necessity 
is a yarn which will weave satisfactorily. To obtain 
this at a reasonable rate becomes year by year more 
difficult, as the tendency towards cheapness becomes 
more pronounced. As a rule a yarn with a minimum 
strength of 4 ounces is the very weakest which should be 
employed. 

. The warping operation consists in obtaining a given 
number of threads (say 2,000), of a given length (say 
100 yards), in a given order (sometimes any order will do ; 
sometimes a colour scheme, say four black, two grey, four 
white, two grey, must be maintained), and at an equal 
tension, in a convenient form for being wound on to the 
warp-beam of the loom. Hand-warping is only resorted to 
for pattern warps. The upright warping mill is still 
largely employed both for cotton and wool warps, but is 
frequently inefficient, as it tends to develop stripiness in 
the pieces — both a sectional stripiness and a distributed 
stripiness, owing to its failure to control the tension on 
individual threads unless very carefully set and geared. 



158 TEXTILES 

The cheese system is still largely employed, but again tends 
to show a defect in cheese widths, which while not notice- 
able in fancies, in plains may become very objectionable. 
The Scotch or horizontal warping mill is gaining in favour 
and for fancies is practically perfect, but for plains also 
tends to show a defect in section of the number of bobbins 
warped with. The warper's beam system, all things con- 
sidered, seems the most perfect system, as all defects tend 
to become distributed and thus neutralise one another. 
This system is simplicity itself for plain warps, and for 
fancies, with a little arrangement, may also be used to 
advantage. 

Sizing follows warping, the idea being to coat the thread 
and thus prevent its wearing fluffy in the gears of the loom ; 
and further, if possible, to strengthen the thread. In the 
past the tendency has always been to put vegetable size 
on to vegetable fibres and animal size on to animal fibres. 
To-day, however, the tendency is to put vegetable sizes 
on to every kind of material, no doubt on account of cheap- 
ness. Of course care must be taken that the vegetable 
size is readily extracted from the fabrics during the finish- 
ing operation, otherwise clouded pieces, owing to this 
irregular sizing, may result. Certain combination warping 
and sizing machines are placed on the market, but the call 
for these has rather declined than increased. 

After sizing follows dressing, which consists in winding 
the warp at a uniform tension — both across and lengthwise 
— on to the loom beam. English dressers prefer to com- 
press the warp on the beam with the tension that the warp 
itself will naturally stand, but American dressers often 
attempt to compress the warp still further in order that the 



THE PEINCIPLES OF WEAVING 159 

warp beam may be made to carry a greater length of warp, 
thus saving a certain number of tyings-in. 

Drawing or twisting-in follows. If the warp is to be 
passed through a new set of gears it will have to be drawn 
by hand through these. A good drawer-in working with a 
reacher-in passes about 1,000 to 1,200 threads per hour. 
Sho"uld it only be necessary to twist or tye the new warp 
to the warp — or "thrum" as it is called — already in the 
gears this may readily be effected either in the loom or out 
of the loom at the rate of about 1,800 threads per hour. If 
the warp is plain and no precise order of coloured threads 
necessary, the recently introduced "Barber-Warp Tyer"will 
twist or rather tye-in a warp out of the loom at the rate of 
250 knots or threads per minute. 1 This machine works on 
the "average" principle ; thus, although almost perfect, it 
cannot be relied upon to maintain an absolute order of the 
colours in a fancy warp. 

Eeference may here be made to the various styles of 
healds put on the market. It is probable that not nearly 
sufficient attention is given to this section of the work, as 
good wearing, easily regulated, and convenient styles of 
healds are most necessary. Of late wire healds seem to 
have come much more into use, but there are good and 
very bad styles of wire healds, so that great care should be 
exercised in selecting these. Again, a shed full of wire 
healds means much more weight for the engine to lift. 

After drawing-in, " sleying," or the passing of the threads 
singly or in groups of two, three, four, five or six through 
the reed is necessary. This is effected at the rate of about 

1 A mechanical "drawing-in" machine is now placed on the 
market. 



160 TEXTILES 

2,000 threads per hour by means of two sleying knives 
worked alternately by hand. Eeeds again should receive 
more attention than they at present claim. English reed 
makers can make a good ordinary article, but German and 
French reed makers are much ahead in the production of 
really fine reeds with properly feathered dents regularly 
soldered together. 

After the warp has been passed through the gears and 
reed the warp- beam and gears must be lifted into the loom — 
the gates in the loom shed being sufficiently wide to ensure 
this without damage to either warp or gears, the gears hung 
in position, the reed placed in position, the warp attached to 
the cloth beam by means of a level wrapper, and then after 
the necessary gearing up the actual operation of weaving 
ensues. 

The principal movements during weaving are as follows : 

Shedding, or forming a passage for the shuttle through 
the warp threads, certain of the threads being definitely 
raised and the others depressed ; threads lifted and depressed 
being varied for a succession of sheds. 

Picking, or the throwing of the shuttle through the shed 
which has been formed, leaving the pick behind it in 
the shed. 

Beating-up, i.e., the reed beating the pick just inserted up 
to the cloth already formed to make a firm, even texture. 

Letting-off, i.e., unwrapping warp from the warp-beam to 
take the place of that used up in interlacing with the weft 
to form the cloth. 

Taking-up, i.e., winding up on to the cloth beam the cloth 
woven, this movement of necessity being worked in con- 
junction with the letting-off. 



THE PRINCIPLES OF WEAVING 161 

The following accessory mechanisms are practically 
necessary to ensure economical and satisfactory work : 

The Boxing Mechanism, by means of which any required 
colour of yarn is presented, in its shuttle, on the picking 
plane and thus thrown into the cloth as required. 

The Stop-Rod or the Loose-Reed-Mechanism, through which 
the loom is brought to a standstill should the shuttle fail to 
reach the box, serious breakage of warp threads thus being 
avoided. The first style is applied to plain or rising box 
looms, the latter to circular box looms. 

The "Weft-fork Mechanism, which only permits the loom to 
go on with its work while weft is presented to it. Should 
the weft be broken or absent the loom is immediately 
brought to a standstill. There are two forms, the side- 
weft fork for plain looms and looms with boxes at one end 
only, and the centre-weft fork for double box looms. 

The Warp -Stop Mechanism, by means of which the loom is 
brought to a standstill should any warp-thread break. 

The Spooling or Shuttling Mechanism, by means of which 
when the cop of yarn placed in the shuttle is finished or 
about to be finished either it or the whole shuttle is auto- 
matically ejected and a fresh spool or shuttle pushed in to 
take its place without stopping the loom or without the 
intervention of the attendant. 

Before describing certain typical looms placed upon the 
market reference must be made to the various methods of 
effecting the primary weaving movements and also to 
certain points of importance with reference to the accessory 
mechanisms. 

Shedding. — To the uninitiated this may seem a simple 
matter requiring little consideration. Perhaps this would 

T, m 



162 



TEXTILES 



be so were the yarns which it is necessary to weave always 
strong and were time no object. But yarns must some- 
times be woven which will hardly stand dressing, and looms 
must run from 80 up to 300 picks a minute — although a high 







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Fig. 38. — Tappet Loom with outside treading. 

speed is by no means always economical — and thus it comes 
about that most careful and detailed consideration must be 
given to every point in the shedding mechanism. The 
chief points for consideration are — firstly, the method of 
selecting the healds to be raised' and the healds to be 
lowered — absolute certainty must here be ensured ; secondly, 



THE PEINCIPLES OF WEAVING 



163 



the movement of the healds to put as little strain as possible 
into the warp threads during the change of shed; and 
thirdly, the satisfactory holding of the threads up and the 
threads down during picking to ensure the safe passage of 
the shuttle. Of the varied mechanisms to effect this, the 
Tappet mechanism (either inside or outside tread, with 




Eig. 39. — Heavy Coating Loom. 



"top" or "under" motion) is the simplest and most 
satisfactory, as the curve for the " rise " and for the " fall " 
of the heald-shaft can be made to give a simple harmonic 
motion or any other desired motion, while the " dwell " of 
the heald-shaft may be regulated to a nicety. (Fig. 38.) 
Unfortunately, the interlacing or figuring capacity of the 
Tappet loom is not great, so that for anything above a 

m 2 



TEXTILES 




Eig. 40. x 
weave repeating on 12 to 16 shafts a Dobby must be 



THE PRINCIPLES OE WEAVING 165 

employed, while for anything above, say, 36 shafts, a 
Jacquard is employed. The shedding arrangements of 
Dobby looms are usually in some sense an imitation of the 
Tappet action (see Fig. 39), but the following variations are 
to be met with : close shedding and open shedding Dobbies, 
single-lift and double-lift Dobbies, with combinations of the 
same. Each possesses certain advantages either for the 
fabric being produced or in quick and perfect running. 
The only difference in principle between the Dobby and the 
Jacquard is that in the Dobby each heald-shaf t may usually 
be controlled positively whether lifted or depressed, while 
in the Jacquard the lifting only is positive, the depressing 
being effected by weights on the harness cords. The usual 
figuring capacities of Jacquards are — Bradford, 300 or 600 ; 
Huddersfield, 400 ; Belfast, 1,200 to 1,800 ; but there are 
naturally variations from these precise numbers in each 
district and for specific purposes. (See Fig. 40.) 

Weaving wages largely depend upon the shaft or harness 
capacity of looms. 

Picking. — The throwing of the shuttle through the shed 
— under the guiding influences of the shuttle-race and reed 
— is a most difficult and important matter. If thrown too 
strongly it is liable to break the weft yarn and to wear itself 
and the loom out quickly, and if thrown too weakly the loom 
knocks off. Again, the tendency of shuttles to fly out of the 
shed has necessitated the adoption of shuttle-guards to 
protect the weavers. There are two main types of picking 
motions, viz., over and under. The over-pick is the 
" sweeter " and safer, but unfortunately consumes a large 
quantity of picking-strap. The under-pick partakes less 
of the slinging character than does the over-pick, so 



166 TEXTILES 

that for the weaving of lightly-twisted weft yarns such as 
mohair and alpaca the over-pick system possesses marked 
advantages. 

Beating-up. — Sufficient attention is not paid to this motion 
by many loom makers, as the satisfactory running of the 
loom may largely depend upon the satisfactory running of 
the going-part which carries the shuttles, etc., as well as 
the reed. The points to be carefully considered are — sweep 
of crank, length of connecting pin, method of attachment 
of connecting pin to sword-arms, and the relationship of 
sword-arm connections to crank centre. 

Letting-off and Taking-up. — These two mechanisms are 
usually worked in conjunction, for what the cloth requires 
must be delivered to it by the warp-beam. Both these 
mechanisms may either be positive or negative, but usually 
the taking-up motion is positive (so that the wefting of the 
cloth is perfectly controlled) and the letting-off negative. 
The latest form of positive letting-off motion, however, in 
which the tension of the warp itself regulates the letting-off, 
has proved a marked practical success and is nearly always 
adopted for heavy wefting. For lighter work and even for 
some forms of heavy work the ordinary or special form of 
negative letting-off motion is adopted. The taking-up of 
the cloth woven is almost invariably effected by means of a 
friction or sand roller (which bears upon the cloth beam, 
and thus turns it by friction at a fixed rate, notwithstanding 
its increase in circumference) driven through a train of 
wheels, the last one of which receives its movement from a 
pawl on the sword of the going-part. One or more of these 
wheels may be changed to give /the required number of 
picks in specific cloths. In the best train there is a direct 



THE PRINCIPLES OF WEAVING 167 

relationship between the picks per inch and the teeth in the 
change wheel. 

The Boxing Mechanism. — Boxes are made in two forms — 
rising and falling, and circular. In rising boxes there is no 
limit as to size or number, while in the case of circular 
boxes there is a distinct practical limit in size, and it is not 
as«a rule convenient to have more than six boxes to the 
round. Thus, for heavy thick materials rising boxes of 
great size are employed ; while for fine cotton, silk, etc., the 
smaller circular boxes are mostly used. 

Looms are made in three forms with reference to their 
boxes, viz., without boxes, i.e., plain looms ; boxes at one end 
only ; and boxes at both ends. In looms with boxes at one 
end only there are limits in colouring, as only double picks 
may be inserted without very special arrangement and loss 
of time, while in one most important type of circular box 
there is a further limit as to which colours may be 
presented on the picking plane. 

The addition of boxes to a loom usually reduces its speed 
from 5 per cent, to 10 per cent, and necessitates the pay- 
ment of a slightly higher wage to the weaver. 

The Stop-rod and Loose-reed Mechanism. — Plain and rising 
box looms are fitted with the stop-rod mechanism, while 
circular box looms are fitted with the loose-reed mechanism. 
In the stop-rod mechanism the reed is prevented from 
coming within less than, say, 4 inches of the fell of the 
cloth, unless the shuttle is in the box, by means of a slop- 
rod which plays against a special casting, termed the 
" frog." As the shuttle normally enters the box, however, 
it lifts this stop-rod clear of the " frog " and so the loom 
proceeds with its task. Should the shuttle fail to reach the 



168 TEXTILES 

box and stop in the shed, the loom is knocked-off by means 
of the stop-rod coming against the special casting or "frog," 
which, in turn, acts upon the setting-on lever and loom brake. 
Few or no warp threads will be broken down, as the reed can- 
not get nearer than about 4 inches to the fell of the cloth — 
a distance which is just judged sufficient to save breakage 
of warp threads when the shuttle is left in the shed. 

In the case of the loose reed mechanism the shuttle is 
allowed to knock the reed out to prevent the reed breaking 
the shuttle through the warp threads. To allow of this the 
reed is only lightly held until it is within, say, 2 inches of 
the cloth — when, if the shuttle were there, the reed would 
be forced out and the belt thrown on to the loose pulley — 
after which it is firmly locked for the beat up. Owing to 
this locking and unlocking of the reed heavy wefting 
cannot be effected by this mechanism. 

The Weft-fork Mechanism. — In plain looms this is at the 
side, close to the setting-on handle. It consists of a small 
three-pronged fork passing through a grid in the going- 
part, across which grid the weft has to pass. If the weft be 
present it does not allow the prongs of the fork to pass 
through the grid, but, instead, tilts the fork. At this 
moment a hammer head is drawn back by means of a 
projection on the low shaft of the loom (once every two 
picks), but nothing happens if the weft is there and has 
tilted the fork. If the weft is not there, however, the fork 
is not tilted and a catch upon its extremity is caught by 
the hammer head and the loom thus brought to a standstill. 
Mr. Pickle, of Burnley, has patented a markedly improved 
form of this fork which mechanically may be considered 
perfect, and this cannot be said of the ordinary form. 



THE PRINCIPLES OP WEAVING 160 

The centre weft-fork mechanism — which must be em- 
ployed when there are boxes at both ends — acts through 
the weft supporting if present, or allowing to fall if absent, 
a lightly- weighted fork, which, by means of a slide, is 
connected with the setting-on lever. 

The Warp-stop Mechanism. — While the weft-stop mechan- 
ism- has always been considered as essential to the 
satisfactory running of a loom, the warp-stop mechanism 
has never been in favour, and obviously it can only be of 
economical value in the case of weaving tender warps (when 
possibly it helps to break down threads) or where one 
attendant looks after a large number of looms. With the 
comparatively recent introduction of the automatic loom, 
warp-stop methods have increased in favour, but their 
application in anything but very plain work is still 
comparatively rare. 

There are two forms placed on the market — the mechanical 
and the electrical. The chief objection to them is the time 
taken in readjustment when drawing in a new warp, while, 
of course, it is conceivable that they may in all warps 
occasionally cause ends to break down. Possibly the 
greatest advantage lies in that a weaver cannot produce an 
imperfect piece as the loom will not run with ends down. 

The Spooling or Shuttling Mechanism. — This is the 
mechanism of most recent introduction, although so called 
automatic looms were tried about forty years ago. If one 
weaver is to attend to sixteen or twenty-four looms, it is 
evident that there must be some self-shuttling arrangement, 
or there will always be some looms standing. On the other 
hand, the additional mechanism involved may necessitate 
additional attention on the part of the tuner or overlooker 



170 TEXTILES 

— usually a high-wage man — and hence he will not be able 
to follow so many looms. 

In the cotton trade the Northorpe loom — one form of the 
automatic loom — is being largely adopted, the spool eject- 
ing mechanism being brought into play by the weft running 
off, so that each change of spool may be accompanied by 
a broken pick in the piece. This broken pick would be 
a serious defect in cloths other than cotton, so that some 
means to indicate for the ejection of the spool before all the 
weft has run off must be adopted. On the other hand, 
spools must not be ejected before the weft is practically run 
off, or the waste will be too great. The latest system of 
effecting this is by means of a special split bobbin held 
together by the weft. The pike of the shuttle is so designed 
that it gently bears upon the split bobbin, but only succeeds 
in opening it just as the last layers are taken off. The 
opening of the bobbin brings into action the spool ejection 
mechanism, the old spool or bobbin is ejected and a full one 
automatically taken from the reservoir and put in its place 
without interfering with the running of the loom. 

The classification of looms is based chiefly upon the type 
of shedding mechanism, but sometimes upon the boxing 
capacity. Thus looms are usually classified as Tappet, 
Dobby, or Jacquard looms, but manufacturers of tweeds 
and coloured fancy goods naturally think more of the boxing- 
capacity than of the figuring capacity, as they usually only 
require a four or six thread twill weave, depending upon 
colour as a means of beautifying their fabrics, although, 
of course, the colour is usually applied to a good sound 
structure. 



THE PEINCIPLES OF WEAVING 171 

The outside tread Tappet loom is most largely employed 
in Yorkshire for all classes of simple interlacings, including 
such light weight goods as Orleans, Italians, cashmeres, 
serges, etc. The inside tread Tappet loom is more largely 
employed in the Lancashire cotton trade for all styles of 
simple cotton fabrics, and in broad looms for heavy 
Yorkshire woollens. 

The Dobby loom — of various types and makes — is 
employed in both Lancashire and Yorkshire for fancy 
styles, which are not floral, but rather fancy in the sense 
of being compounded of more or less intricate interlacings. 

The Jacquard loom is employed when elaborate figuring 
is necessary, as in this loom from 100 to 1,800 threads may 
be controlled individually by means of cards with holes cut 
or uncut to produce the required pattern. 

For special purposes combinations of the three types are 
frequently met with. In tapestries, for example, the 
Jacquard is frequently mounted in conjunction with a 
Tappet or a Dobby ; for skirtings Tappets and a Dobby 
are frequently combined, while boxes may be employed in 
conjunction with any and every shedding combination, 
sometimes the relationships of Jacquard, Tappets, and 
boxes being very complex, but really most delightfully 
controlled ; from which it will be gathered that the weaver 
who can perfectly control such a combination is no mean, 
unintellectual person, but rather must be regarded as a 
truly matured craftsman possessing at least some of the 
qualities of the methodical scientist. 



CHAPTEE VIII 

THE PEINCIPLES OF DESIGNING AND COLOURING 

As it is generally recognized that the perception of form 
precedes that of colour it is more than probable that the 
first attempts at woven decorations would take the form of 
diagonals, stripe and check effects, possibly produced by 
interlaced rushes or bands. 1 Just as the Norwegian 
peasant takes out his knife and carves the wooden wall by 
the side of his chair so would our ancestors amuse or profit 
themselves by schemes of interlacings with such materials 
as were to hand. Thus we can well imagine the various 
natural shades of wool such as are indirectly referred to in 
early Biblical history for example, affording opportunities 
for the development of design in form long before artificial 
colours made their appearance. For the sake of variety 
various kinds of materials would next be tried, and so a 
second factor of interest would be introduced. Finally, 
the appreciation of colour would be developed and attempts 
made at colouring the raw materials by such herbs, etc., 
as were available, or rather of which the colouring pro- 
perties were known. For it must have been a grievous 
thing to the ancients to discover that red poppies would 
not yield their colour, that Tyrian purple must be sought 

1 The Scotch, plaid was originally a plait or possibly a number of 
interlaced plaits. 



THE PEINCIPLES OF DESIGNING AND COLOUEING 173 

for in a mollusc and not in the gorgeous garb of nature. 
As has been already pointed out, the inborn love of man for 
artistic productions was developed long before the present- 
day economic spirit ; hence artistic weaving was developed 
at a very early date and was followed much later by 
attempts, firstly, at quicker production of artistic patterns, 
and, secondly, by attempts to produce goods more econo- 
mically and by simpler means. A relic of this evolution 
is in evidence to-day in the fact that so far as the art of 
designing and weaving is concerned England is absolutely 
indebted to the Continent, everything good coming to us 
from Italy, France, the Netherlands, or Germany. On the 
other hand, so far as economical production is concerned, 
the Continent is indebted to England, we leading the way 
in all power machinery. Curiously enough, America led 
the way during the last century in devising means for the 
quicker production of elaborate styles, as instanced in the 
plush wire loom and the Axminster carpet loom. This 
was, no doubt, due to the enormous wealth so rapidly 
developed resulting in a great call for what might be 
regarded as luxuries. 

Present-day textile design may be very conveniently 
studied under its three factors — material, interlacing, and 
colour. Of course, there are many varied combinations of 
two or more of these factors, but brief study will prove 
that these factors are really the key to the thorough com- 
prehension of all textile design, and that consequently 
each merits careful consideration. 

Materials. — These briefly are animal, insect, vegetable, 
mineral, and artificially produced fibres or filaments. 
Among the animal class are specially to be noted all the 



174 TEXTILES 

varieties of wool, mohair, alpaca, vicuna, cashmere, camels' 
hair, horsehair, rabbit fur, etc. 

A special class is made of the insect fibres, seeing that 
they are so valuable and useful, and further that from the 
point of view of chemical reaction they cannot quite be 
classed with the true animal fibres. Cultivated and wild 
silks are the chief representations, while certain " spider " 
silks and other varieties of cocoons are continually making 
their appearance. 

The vegetable fibres may be divided into two very distinct 
classes — viz., the fluffy seed hair types of which cotton is 
the principal representative, but of which various " thistle- 
down " and other fibres keep putting in an appearance; 
and the stem fibres, such as flax, hemp, jute, china- grass, 
etc. Plants themselves, as notably the mosses, also are 
sometimes spun and woven. 

The mineral fibres are principally metallic threads, and 
such special minerals as asbestos and silica, which are 
specially spun and woven into fabrics for fire-resisting and 
other purposes and in the form of glass for pure novelty. 

The artificially produced fibres include artificial silk, 
artificial linen, paper, and, latest of all, some organic or 
crystalline forms of other substance somewhat of the same 
character as asbestos, which lately have been successfully 
produced in Germany. 

It should be further noted in this connection that it is 
not sufficient to simply consider the raw material. The 
manner in which it has been prepared and spun may 
create differences as marked as the differences between 
some of these distinct classes. For example, there may be 
a greater difference between woollen and worsted yarns and 



THE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING AND COLOUBING 175 

net and span silk yarns than there is between raw wool and 
cotton. The arrangement of the fibres in the threads of 
which a fabric is composed, while not directly affecting the 
interlacing, may nevertheless indirectly cause the designer 
to adopt specific styles of interlacing to develop a particular 
characteristic in the resultant cloth ; so that it is cus- 
tomary to pay particular attention to this apparent detail, 
and especially to consider the conditions of twist in both 
single and twofold yarns. If, for example, three lots of 
two 40's black botany yarns are twisted 7 turns, 14 turns, 
and 28 turns per inch respectively, in the woven fabric 
they will show a marked difference. If the yarn be 
black and white twist not only will there be a difference in 
texture, but also in the speckled appearance of each lot of 
yarn as it appears in the piece. The direction of twist of 
warp and weft and also in relationship to twill interlacings 
is also very important. 

Interlacing. — There are three recognized methods of 
producing fabrics— viz., by felting, by knitting, and by 
weaving. Felt fabrics are essentially fibre structures. 
Perfectly mixed and equalized films of wool are super- 
imposed one on the top of the other until a sheet, say, 40 
yards long, 60 inches broad, and 4 inches thick, of a more or 
less " fluffy " nature, is produced. This under heat and acid 
is hammered, milled, or felted into a comparatively thin 
texture known as "felt." 

Knitted textures usually consist of one thread interwoven 
with itself, but there are now varieties of knitted fabrics 
which do not entirely fulfil this condition. The above two 
classes, although most important, must in this work give 
precedence to the third class, the " woven " fabric. 



1*6 



TEXTILES 



H 


1 


II 


Or< 
1 


linarj 

III 


III 






= 




|| 










= 


_ 










i 




= 





|| 






' 




L 


_■ 






1 


" 




Jil 


= 




I 




- 


j 


1 


| 










~ 


II 


Ill 


j| 


Ill 


InT 


hi 


~ 



Gauze. 





^ V 



Cutting Wire 



Looping Wire 



Plush. 




Fig. 41. — Ordinary, Gauze, land Plush Interfacings, i.e., straight 
thread, curved thread, and projecting thread structures. 



THE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING AND COLOURING 177 

Of woven fabrics it is evident that there will be three 
varieties, along with their combinations, viz., straight thread 
fabrics, curved thread fabrics and projecting thread fabrics, 
having their representation in the ordinary woven texture, 
the gauze texture and the plush texture respectively. (See 



r 



Ph 




Threads or Ends. 



_J 



Warp. 

Fig. 41a. — Showing, with a Fabric composed of White Warp and 

Black Weft, Plain Weave Interlacing. 

Fig. 41.) There are also certain special styles which do 
not well come within the range of any of the above three 
classes ; but these may best be considered as exceptions 
after the above three classes have been fully studied. All 
the woven fabrics increase vastly in interest if regarded as 

T. N 



178 



TEXTILES 



" a mass of balancing strains." The adoption of this 
attitude results in most interesting developments, especially 
with reference to curved thread or gauze fabrics. 

Of the straight-thread or ordinary fabrics the following 
variations are to be noted : — 

(a) Variations in the makes of plain cloths, hopsacks, etc. 

(b) Eib cloths, plain and fancy, in both warp and 

weft direction ; 

(c) Twill cloths, 
both plain and fancy ; 

(d) Eib-twill cloths 
of the "corkscrew" 
type; 

(e) Sateen cloths, 
warp or weft face of 
various qualities ; 

(/) Crepe cloths, 
the antithesis of the 
sateen cloth ; 

(g) Spotted cloths 
based on the single 
cloth structure ; 
(h) Figured cloths 
based on the single cloth structure; 

(i) Extra warp or weft, or warp and weft figured cloths; 
(j) Double cloths or treble cloths for figuring or adding 
weight, or for both figuring and weight. 

In Figs. 42 and 42a illustrations (enlarged) of the chief 
of these varieties are given. 

There are many varieties in each of the foregoing 
classes, but as such would require a treatise larger than 









i 


...»• _,•..'■;.■ -.-,»■*>'.-•.- 

• ••»•• - . » tJ •••.■.•••«-. 

• ••• N . ... -.-«►•««»'.»'•».. 
1 *»•.!>,. "'. "... tfi I.IHIK, 

* •••..,. .•.,.,»• i »••■■ ■■■■ "<••.,;,.( 
•*j«>» •*•>•• •»••'■■ •»•*•* 

<»•»«•»•»«»',... ... ••. . 

•••>•.....- ••«■• 

<' i> t.».« 


' 


""N^" ~ 



Fig. 41b. — Gauze Ground Fabric upon 
which a Plain Cloth and Weft Flush 
Figure is Thrown. 



THE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING AND COLOURING 179 

the present the reader is referred to the author's work on 
" Textile Design," and to "Designing for Shaft Work," by 
F. Donat, of Vienna (published in German only). 

Of curved thread or gauze fabrics the following variations 
are to be noted : — 

(a) Variation in the number of threads crossing : one 




Fig. 41c. — Plush Fabric. 

crossing one, two crossing two, one crossing three, one 
crossing four, etc. ; 

(b) Variation in the number of picks grouped together 
and in the manner in which they are grouped together by 
the crossing threads (see Fig. 43 and 43a) ; 

(c) Variation in the yarns — thicknesses, colours, etc. — 
woven together (see Fig. 43b) ; 

(d) Variation in the crossings — leno, gauze, plain — 
which may be woven together ; 

n 2 





]7 IGt 42.— 1, Ordinary; 2, "Warp-rib; and 3, Weft-rib Interlacings. 



THE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING AND COLOURING 181 

(<?) Variation in figuring by various gauze or gauze and 
ordinary interlacings (see Fig. 41b) ; 

(/) Variation by the introduction of extra materials 
(see Fig. 43c) ; 

(g) Variation producible by employing double-gauze 
structure (see Fig. 43d) ; 

(h) Variations by combining gauze and pile structures. 

Again, each of these classes has many varieties which 
cannot be dealt with here. 

4. 




ou^ 




Eia. 42a. — 4, Weft-back ; and 5, Double Olotb Interlacings. 

Of projecting thread structures usually termed " pile " 
fabrics the two great varieties are warp and weft piles. 
The former, as will be realized by referring to Fig. 44, are 
formed by pulling up the warp out of the body of the cloth 
during weaving, usually by means of wires, to form a 
brush-like or " pile " surface. The latter are formed by 
floating certain picks over the surface of an otherwise 
firmly-woven piece and then throwing these floats up as curls 
by shrinking the ground texture or as a cut pile by severing 
these floats either in or out of the loom. -In this latter 



182 



TEXTILES 



TO 



I crossing I 



Jzhfcfc 

/-M-K/ 



5) 



5 



crossing • 



1 • 



'J V S3 | | I 

Ll|J_L|« 

lj-Lli-L 
CLllLs- 

LJL|JjL|- 

i I I ■ i I 



l crossing 2 



r #f 

L iLLLEpZ 
L I LLL I IjJZ 



2 crossinq 2 
/ 

Fig. 43, — Four Varieties of Simple Gauze Crossings. 



THE PEINCIPLES OF DESIGNING AND COLOUEING 183 







IB 1» \\i 




1 



Fig. 43a. — Gauze Structure with Grouping of the Picks as the 
Characteristic Feature. 




Fig. 43b. — Gauze Structure with Fancy Yarn Introduced. 



184 



TEXTILES 



case some most useful types of pile fabrics are obtained 
— fustians and corduroys for example — by distributing or 
concentrating the pile on certain sections of the cloth by 
the suitable arrangement of the positions where the floating 
picks are bound into the fabric. 

Of pile fabrics the following varieties are to be noted : — 
Picks. 




Fig. 43c— Double Weft Gauze. 

(a) Variation in density of pile, so that the ground 
texture may show through or may be completely hidden ; 

(b) Variation in length of pile ; 

(c) Variation by the use of cut and looped pile — the 
difference between the same coloured yarn cut and looped 
being ample to design with (see Fig. 41c) ; 

(d) Variation in the form taken by the cut, or looped, 
or cut and looped piles, such as stripes, checks and figures. 

Perhaps in this class a special section should be devoted 
to varieties of piles produced on the " doable-plush " 



THE PKINCIPLES OF DESIGNING AND COLOURING 185 

principle as illustrated in Fig. 45 ; but as these generally 
speaking lend themselves to the same variations as the 
other pile fabrics already dealt with, they are considered 
together. There is no single work which fully treats the 

t 



mmmm 

Mmmm 

\ J/A\l l//W« I//NNW I 










)£ FaceCloth 



0\ BachCloth 

Fig. 43d. — Double Gauze Interlacing, 
three sections of warp piles, weft piles and double piles ; but 
the work of Donat already cited may be consulted with 
advantage. 

The Use of Point-paper. — To facilitate designing squared 
or point-paper is employed Briefly it consists of spaces 



186 



TEXTILES 
A. Warp Pile. 




Fia. 44. — Two Types of Pile Fabrics. 

lengthwise, representing warp threads, and spaces cross- 
wise representing weft threads, or "picks," as they are 
termed. This paper must not he regarded as so many squares, 




Fig. 45. — Illustrating the Production of -Double Plusbers, i.e., Two 
Single Pile Fabrics, face to face. 



THE PEINOIPLES OF DESIGNING AND COLOUKING 187 



i iiHin F 

— 1"~ x~ 



|-TT- Hi 

I I " I I 
I I _~ ' I 
I I _ I I 

_i 3 ' ' -Z" 

: " ■ ■ l. : m 
1 1 1 1 i 1 1 





1 ' ' ' z z * * * 

T ~ " i i i " " " 

j_ ~ " i i i _ ~ " 

i i i ~ 2 i ' i 




Fig. 46. — Example of the Eepresentation of Simple Interfacings on 
Point or Square Paper. 

but as warp threads — say of a white material — under which 
lie so many weft picks — say of a dark material. Then 
whenever weft is required to come over warp, that particular 



188 



TEXTILES 



section — in this case a square — is marked black. Thus to 
the well-versed textile designer the point-paper weave does 
fairly correctly represent the actual appearance of the 
cloth, although it is obvious that such weaves must be 
viewed through the eyes of the designer's many and varied 
experiences. To further elucidate these somewhat brief 
remarks six examples of interlacing, with their respective 
paint-paper plans, are given in Fig. 46. 







Fig. 47. — Example of the Eeversing of Pattern due to Defective 
Grading of Colour Ranges. 

Colour. — Colour may obviously be applied to all the fore- 
going fabrics. So subtle is the colouring of textiles that the 
designer well versed in the colouring of one class of goods 
may, nay, probably will, be unsuccessful in the colouring of 
another class of goods. 

In the abstract colours should be apportioned to the fabric 
for which they are designed ; they should be appropriate and 
artistic in themselves if solid shades, and in their combina- 
tions for multi-coloured styles. Nojie should also be made 
that colours cannot be considered irrespective of luminosities, 



THE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING AND COLOURING 189 



DM 





Black 



Red 



Orange 



Yellow 



Green 



LM 



Mm&s/Mjima 





Blue 



Violet 



Fig. 48.— Illustrating the Grading of Colour Ranges to obviate re- 
versing of Pattern. 



190 TEXTILES 

so that in every colour scheme the two features, colour and 
luminosity, are really brought into play. 

From the practical point of view the first consideration 
should be the fastness of the colours selected to finishing 
and ordinary wearing conditions. The organization of 
graded ranges of shades and tints of correct tones and 
intensities is the next important factor. This will best be 
effected by basing the ranges selected upon the tints, shades 
and tones of the spectrum colours. It is not necessary that 
a complete range of spectrum colours shall be represented. 
If, for instance, greens are fashionable, the green tints, 
shades and tones may at least predominate in the selection, 
and so on according to the prevalent taste in colour. In 
order that the reversing illustrated in Fig. 47 may be 
avoided it is very desirable that the ranges of shades should 
be organized upon the lines illustrated in Fig. 48, from 
which it will be gathered that so long as the designer takes, 
say, his ground colours from the same grade of darks and 
his checking colours from the same grade of lights the 
reversing of the pattern illustrated in Fig. 47 will be 
impossible, and hence the spoiling of, say, a range of eight 
patterns by one of the eight being accidentally reversed will 
be avoided. 

By some such organization of colours as this the designer 
will find that not only can he do with about half the shades 
he would otherwise require, but he will also find that his 
ranges of colours actually inspire him to design. Some 
of the French pattern firms supply magnificent ranges of 
colours which the textile designer should always have by 
him, as such, even if not of direct use, tend to guide one 
into good methods, and good method in textile design and 



THE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING AND COLOURING 191 

colouring results in economical production without any 
real suppression of the artistic feeling and instinct of the 
designer. 

Figure Designing. — This involves a two-fold qualification, 
viz., the qualification of the artist to create artistic forms 
and patterns, and the qualification of the cloth constructor 
not only to render in the fabric the patterns designed, but 
rather to qualify the artistic qualification so that the limits 
of textile design may be taken as an inspiration rather than 
as a limitation. 

Brief consideration of the fact that woven fabrics are 
composed of threads at right angles to one another will 
result in the limits of textile design being fully realized. 

In designing for figures any of the structures mentioned 
on p. 178 may be employed ; but as a rule the designer 
will be given a typical foundation fabric to design to. The 
usual limit for the Lancashire and Huddersfield design is 
about 400 threads, i.e., a cloth 100 threads per inch, about 
a 4-inch pattern. Bradford, however, largely employs a 
jacquard figuring with 300 threads, while Belfast and some 
of the silk and tapestry districts figure up to 1,200 or 1,800 
threads by any required number of picks. 



CHAPTEE IX 



THE PRINCIPLES OF FINISHING 



Most fabrics are somewhat uncouth and unsatisfactory 
as taken from the loom. Some few, such as various silks 
and a few cotton styles, are not markedly changed by the 
subsequent finishing; others, such as woollen fabrics, are 
so changed that it is difficult to believe that the harsh, 
unsightly fabric taken from the loom can be so changed — 
so improved — by a few simple finishing operations. 

Finishing may be varied in three marked ways. Firstly, 
it may be applied with the idea of making the best of what 
is present in the cloth under treatment without the addition 
of any so-called finishing agents ; secondly, it may princi- 
pally consist of adding a finishing agent or " filler " to the 
fabric, the fabric being merely a foundation to hold the 
"filler" together; and thirdly, a combination of the two 
foregoing ideas is possible in which the nature of the fabric 
is suitably fortified with a not undue allowance of some 
suitable "filling" agent. 

In the first class come most wool fabrics, in which the 
nature of the wool is, or should be, fully developed by 
suitable spinning and twisting, suitable weave structure 
and suitable finishing. The perfect wool texture is only 
producible by full deference being paid to all these factors. 
But even in the various all-wool goods a marked difference 



THE PEINCIPLES OF FINISHING 193 

is observable. The typical woollen cloth is a cloth made 
in the finishing. The typical worsted cloth is a cloth made 
in the loom. But between these extremes there is every 
grade imaginable, from the worsted-serge or vicuna of 
worsted warp and woollen weft, with a pure woollen finish, 
to the typical West of England woollen with almost a 
worsted finish. 

In the second class come certain cheap calicoes, and of 
late certain cheap silks, with a very large percentage of 
filling. Little exception can be taken to the calicoes. They 
are sold for what they are, and no one is taken in. With 
the silks, however, it is quite otherwise. The goods in 
question are sold as silks, and no reference is made to the 
percentage of filling, which is sometimes truly astounding. 
Sometimes the silk spinner or manufacturer imposes upon 
himself. For example, a silk spinner gives instructions for 
his yarns to be dyed and loaded up say 40 per cent. Now 
this yarn in discharging may lose 30 per cent. ; so that if 
the spinner gets back for every 100 lbs. of grey yarn 
140 lbs. of dyed yarn, the proportion of filling to silk is — 
As 70 : 70 or 100 per cent., although it may only be stated 
at 40 per cent. The ease with which silk can be loaded or 
filled has enabled unscrupulous silk merchants to take in 
an all too trusting public. The filling of silk goods has 
been carried on to such an excess that at the present 
moment there is a strong reaction against it. 

In the third class come some few wool goods and a large 
variety of cotton, linen and silk goods. Few wool goods 
can be improved with any filling agent. Meltons and heavy 
milled cloths may perhaps be improved by a stiffening 
agent in their interior, and the necessary weight, but no 

t. o 



194 TEXTILES 

extra value, may be added to worsted coatings by such 
a weighting agent as chloride of zinc. These, however, 
may be taken to be the exceptions which prove the rule. 
Most cotton goods are improved and rendered more sightly 
by either adding filling or by smoothing down the size 
already present in the warp yarn. Linen goods specially 
lend themselves to, one might almost say, " showing-off " 
a filling agent " starch " — in fact, it is quite questionable 
whether the goods should not be placed in the second 
class. Some certainly should ; others are not abnormally 
" filled." Silks, being frequently woven in the " gum," 
must be discharged in finishing ; but it is probable that 
the presence of a small amount of silk gum in the bath and 
on the fibre is necessary to preserve the best characteristics 
of the texture under treatment. 

Finishing Processes and Machines. — As many processes 
and machines are common to all the recognised fabrics, 
such may be described generally prior to a particular 
description of the finishing operations necessary for 
representative fabrics. 

Mending, Knotting and Burling. — This consists in repair- 
ing the broken threads and picks nearly always present in 
the fabric as it leaves the loom. It is also advisable to 
mend pure worsteds after scouring, as the faults are then 
more easily seen. The mending wage for fine worsteds is 
frequently equal to the weaving wage. Knotting and 
burling are also carried out at this stage. 

Scouring. — This consists in thoroughly cleansing the 
fabric prior to proceeding with the finishing proper. 
Certain cotton, cotton and wool, and silk cloths are so clean 
on leaving the loom that the finishing proper is at once 



THE PEINCIPLES OF FINISHING 195 

proceeded with. Many wool goods, however, must be 
scoured fairly clean in what is known as the " dolly " 
or on the five-hole machine, before they will satisfactorily 
take the finish for which they are designed. Again, colours 
running in the scouring may often be scoured out, while 
if left in for the milling they will truly " bleed " and 
permanently stain the neighbouring threads and picks. 

Milling. — This operation is equivalent to hammering or 
squeezing the cloth until it has attained to a sufficient 
solidity. Wool only of all the textile fibres "felts," as it is 
termed, so that this operation is practically limited to wool 
or wool combination goods. 

Two machines are employed to effect the required felting, 
yielding somewhat different results. The milling stocks, 
imitating the original treading action of the human feet, 
hammer the cloth (which is placed in a holder or receptacle 
so shaped that the falling of the hammer not only " mills " 
or " felts " but also turns the cloth round so that its action 
is evenly distributed over all its surface). The action of the 
stocks is obviously of a bursting nature, giving " cover " on 
the fabric. 

The " milling machine " works on the squeezing basis, 
the cloth to be milled being squeezed up in lengths or in 
width or both according to requirements. This machine 
not only gives a more solid cloth, but also enables the miller 
to control the width and length and consequently the 
weight per yard. 

Crabbing. — This is an operation based upon the fixing 
qualities of wet heat as applied to various textures, and upon 
the desirableness of the first shrinking and consequent 
setting of the fabric being very carefully controlled. The 

o 2 



196 TEXTILES 

fabric to be "crabbed" is wound dry and perfectly level 
on to a roller and then under tension wound on to a 
roller running in hot water. From this roller the fabric 
may be run to another roller under similar conditions. 
There are various forms of crabbing machines, but the 
factors are always the same — wet heat and tension and 
weight. 

A very useful but somewhat dangerous machine is used 
for finishing certain cotton warp and wool weft goods, con- 
sisting of four or five rollers running in scouring and 
washing-off liquors, round which the fabric is passed, 
followed by a series of drying rollers, so that the fabric in 
a sense is continuously scoured, crabbed and dried. This 
machine is dangerous in that "crimps " are not eliminated 
as in the case of true crabbing. Of course this machine 
may be employed in conjunction with the crabbing machine 
when the above objection does not hold. 

A special crabbing machine employed in the woollen and 
worsted trade simply arranges for steaming while the fabric 
is being wound on to a true steaming roller upon which the 
fabric may be steamed and cooled off ; or it may be wound 
on to a roller for " boiling " if necessary. 

Steaming. — If the fabric is to be steamed it is run from 
the last crabbing roller on to the steaming roller — a hollow 
roller with a large number of holes pierced from its central 
tube to its periphery — so that steam may be blown right 
through the piece. The piece is usually re-wound inside 
out and re-steamed to ensure level treatment. It is then 
allowed to " cool off." The basis of this treatment appears 
to be a " setting " action, owing tO/the great heat employed 
no doubt partially dissolving or liquefying certain of the 



THE PKINCrPLES OF FINISHING 197 

constituents of the wool fibre. Prolonged steaming 
undoubtedly weakens wool fibres. 

Dyeing. — From a mechanical point of view dyeing may 
be conducted on either the "open width" or "rope " method. 
Cotton goods, for example, must be piece dyed on the 
" jigger " full width if level shades are to be obtained, 
while wool goods are usually satisfactorily dyed in rope 
form. There is no satisfactory theory for this, but practi- 
cally as fact it is a most important matter. Mercerized cotton 
has such an affinity for dyes that the utmost difficulty is 
experienced in finding a restrainer to effect the even dis- 
tribution of the dye in light shades. Without some restrain- 
ing influence the first few yards might take up the whole 
of the colouring matter. 

Most goods must be opened out after dyeing, as if 
allowed to cool in a creased state they retain their creases. 
The point here to note is that to take out a crease it requires 
a greater heat than the heat at which the crease was put 
into the piece. 

Wasliing-off. — This is a simple operation to ensure that 
all the unfixed colouring matters, etc., are cleaned out of 
the piece. As the action is mechanical, cold water may be 
employed. 

Drying. — This is usually effected by passing the fabric 
round a series of steam-heated rollers. Owing to the way 
in which the fabric is wrapped round these rollers it never 
rests for long upon one roller, so that it cannot be burnt ; 
again it is wrapped alternately face and back upon the 
rollers, so that it is really dried in the shortest possible 
time. In goods which may be worked by a straight pull 
on the warp either horizontally or vertically arranged drying 



198 TEXTILES 

rollers are ample ; but if any extension in width is desired 
a tentering machine must be employed. As previously 
explained, these drying rollers are usually arranged in 
conjunction with another operation — say, continuous 
scouring and crabbing. Of late there has been a most 
marked tendency to hot-air dry. 

Tentering. — This consists in holding the cloth tightly 
in the warp direction and widening it in the weft direction. 
To effect this the cloth is pinned by hand on to two con- 
tinuous tenter chains, which as they carry the cloth into 
the machine gradually increase the distance between them, 
thus tentering out the cloth. The " give" of the cloth is 
probably due to three factors, viz., give in the fabric struc- 
ture, in the thread structure, and in the fibre itself. 
Obviously, unless the cloth is " set " in this position it will 
more or less shrink after the process. To effect the 
setting the cloth must be fed into the machine damp ; in 
this condition it must be widened or straightened out, and 
then in the widened out condition it must be dried. In the 
most approved tentering machines the expanding chains 
carry the fabric over gas jets which just supply the neces- 
sary heat for drying. A steam-jet pipe is also provided to 
damp the cloth just prior to or during tentering to give it 
the necessary plasticity. In the enclosed " steam-pipe " type 
of machine the efficiency of the machine is often impaired 
by the difficulty of getting away the hot moisture-charged 
air, but as drying largely depends upon this and not so 
much upon the heat developed, this must be done if efficient 
and economical working is to be attained. 

It will be evident that goods "Centering out " will have 
a tendency to shrink. London tailors are credited with 



THE PEINCIPLES OF FINISHING 199 

always testing the natural shrinkage of these goods by 
folding them with a thoroughly wetted and wrung out cloth 
for a day or two, and then noticing the shrinkage which 
has taken place. Goods so treated are spoken of as 
" London shrunk." 

Brushing and Raising. — After scouring, milling, etc., 
most wool goods and some few others present a very 
irregular face, neither clear nor yet fibrous. If a clear 
face is desired the few fibres on the face must be raised as 
much as possible in order that they may be cropped off in 
the cropping or cutting operation which follows. To effect 
this the face of the fabric is regularly presented to the action 
of a circular brush or to the action of "teazles." 

Should a fibrous face be desired — technically termed a 
"velvet "face — the fabric must be raised wet on what is 
termed the " raising gig " from head to tail, from tail to 
head, and across if possible, to obtain a sufficiently dense 
fibre, naturally somewhat irregular in length. 

The " raising gig " proper carries teazles, which with- 
out damage to the foundation of the fabrics submitted to 
them raise a sufficiently dense pile. For flannelettes and 
some other goods a stronger machine is required ; in this 
case wire teeth, specially constructed and specially applied, 
take the place of the teazles. Teazles themselves vary 
much in raising qualities ; and the experienced raiser 
knows this and takes advantage of it. 

Cropping or Cutting. — To obtain a perfectly level face 
on fabrics they must be submitted to a " cropping " or 
" cutting" operation. Formerly cropping was more or less 
efficiently done with large shears, but to-day much better 
and more accurate work is done by the circular 



200 TEXTILES 

"cropper," which, working on the principle of the lawn- 
mower, may be set to leave a pile of any required length, 
or if desirable to practically leave the fabric bare. The 
cutting action is due to the combined action of the fixed 
bed and the spirally arranged revolving blades. 

Singeing. — Some fabrics, such as Alpacas, Mohairs, etc., 
are required to have a clear lustrous face such as no crop- 
ping machine can possibly leave. Singeing must here be 
resorted to. The fabric to be singed is quickly passed face 
downwards over a semi-circular copper bar heated to 
almost white heat. The speed of the cloth naturally 
decides to a nicety the amount of singeing effected, but to 
avoid damage to the fabric a quick speed is usually adopted 
and the fabric passed over, say, six times. Gas singeing is 
not extensively applied save in genapping, i.e., singeing and 
clearing braid, etc., yarns. 

Pressing. — By means of the hydraulic press great weight 
may be put on to fabrics, and they may thus be more or 
less permanently consolidated and in some cases lustred. 
Heat may be applied in the press, thus aiding in the fixing 
of the fabrics under treatment. 

Presses are practically made in three forms : ordinary, 
intermittent, and continuous. The ordinary press simply 
receives its charge of cloths in the ordinary cuttled form, 
heat being introduced through the expanding or contracting 
press-plates separating individual pieces. Press papers 
are placed between the cuttles of the pieces to form the 
surface against which the fabric is pressed. 

In the intermittent form about five yards is treated at 
once, suitably pressed and held sjtationary in the heated 
machine for, say, a minute, and then automatically moved 



THE PRINCIPLES OF FINISHING 201 

on so that the ensuing section of the fabric may be treated 
in like manner. 

In the continuous form the pressing is continuously 
effected. 

The time factor naturally varies in all three forms, and is 
naturally the factor which decides which is the most 
efficient machine for particular classes of goods. 

Calendering. — This operation simply consists in passing 
goods through heavily weighted and if desirable heated 
rollers which it is found break or render less " caky " 
fabrics passed through them. The probable action is to 
distribute rigidity or solidity. 

Schreinering. — This operation consists in passing suitably 
constructed cloths between a pair of solid heavily weighted 
steel rollers, one of which has a plain papier-mache surface 
and the other is ruled with extremely fine lines from 190 to 
500 to the inch. The effect on the piece is to develop a 
really wonderful lustre specially applicable to mercerised 
cotton goods. 

Filling. — As already remarked, it may be desirable or 
necessary to stiffen some goods to increase their utility. 
Again, some goods are " filled " simply to attain a desired 
weight. 

Soap or other agents may be cracked in pieces or the 
pieces may be definitely impregnated with some such 
agent as chloride of zinc. It is hardly necessary to add 
again that filling is rarely legitimate. 

Conditioning. — After fabrics have passed through a pro- 
cess involving the application of dry heat — such as singeing 
— they are unnaturally dry, and as a consequence are very 
weak. To give back the natural moisture, goods in such a 



202 TEXTILES 

condition are passed through a machine which " sprays" 
them and thus causes the fabric to quickly regain the 
moisture and often the strength lost. 

The foregoing are the principal operations in finishing. 
The secondary operation such as hydro-extracting, burl- 
dyeing, extracting, etc., are of such minor importance that 
there is no need to specially refer to them here. 

Waterproofing. — Fabrics may be rendered water-proof in 
three distinct ways. Firstly, the fibres of which they are 
composed may be rendered moisture-repellent, as, for 
instance when wool is subjected to the action of super- 
heated steam. Secondly, the fibres may be charged with 
a water-repellent substance, which thus prevents the passage 
of water save under pressure. Oiled fibres, for instance, 
possess this characteristic. In these two cases the surface 
tension of the liquid which endeavours to pass through the 
fabric plays an important part. Thirdly, the fabric may 
be "plastered " or entirely coated with some such agent as 
india-rubber. 

All three methods are employed, and there are, of 
course, combinations which are not precisely one or the 
other. 

General Notes. — To give an idea of how the foregoing 
operations are applied in finishing specific types of fabrics 
the six following lists are given : — 

Woollen Cloth. Worsted Cloth. Lining Fabric. 

(All Wool.) (All Wool.) * (Cotton and Wool.) 

Mending, Burling, etc. Mending, Burling, etc. Mending. 

Soaping. Crabbing. Crabbing. 

Scouring. Soaping. Steaming and Setting. 

Milling (Stocks). Scouring. Dyeing. 

Milling (Machine). Mending. Washing-off. 

Washing-off. Light-milling, Tentering and Drying. 

Hydro-extracting. Washing-off. Singeing (several times). 



THE PEINCIPLES OF FINISHING 



203 



Woollen Cloth. 
(All Wool.) 
Crabbing. 

Tentering and Drying. 
Brushing and Dewing. 
Eaising. 
Cropping. 

Brushing and Steaming. 
Cutting. 
Pressing. 
Stealning. 
Cuttling. 



Worsted Cloth, 
(All Wool.) 
Hydro-extracting. 
Crabbing. 

Tentering and Drying, 
Dewing or Conditioning. Pressing. 
Brushing and Eaising. 
Cropping. 
Brushing. 

Dry Steam Blowing. 
Cuttling, Rigging. 
Folding and Measuring. 
Pressing. 



Lining Fabric. 
(Cotton and Wool.) 
Washing- off or 
Conditioning. 
Tentering. 



Silk Fabric. 1 
(Net Silk.) 

Singeing or Cropping. 

Discharging and Wash- 
ing. 

Drying. 

Cylindering. 

Damping, or 

Dressing and Singeing. 

Calendering and Lus- 
tring. 

Rolling or Plaiting. 

Pressing. 



Linen Fabric. 1 
(Standard Style.) 

Lime-boiling. 

Washing. 

Souring. 

Washing. 

1st Lyre boil. 

Washing. 

Chemicing. 

Washing. 

Souring. 

Washing. 

2nd Lyre boil. 

Washing. 

Grassing. 

Chemicing. 

Washing. 

Souring. 

Washing. 

Scalding. 2 

Washing. 2 

Chemicing. 2 

Washing. 2 

Souring. 2 

Washing. 2 

Scutching. 

Water-mangl ing. 

Starching and blueing. 

Beetling. 

Breadthening. 

Calendering. 

Lapping. 

1 These details are supplied by specialists in the respective branches of 
the industry. All are preceded by operations equivalent to Mending, 
Burling, etc. 

2 These processes must be varied in accordance with particular require- 
ments. 



Cotton Fabric. 1 
(Calico.) 
Singeing. 
Souring. 
Washing. 
Saturating with Caustic 

Soda. 
Kier Boiling. 
Washing. 
Chemicing. 
Washing. 
Souring. 
Washing. 
Squeezing. 
Mangling. 
Drying. 
Filling. 
Drying. 
Damping. 
Stretching. 

Beetling or Calendering. 
Making-up. 



204 TEXTILES 

The foregoing lists seem fairly comprehensive, but in 
reality they by no means convey a complete idea of the 
many different styles of finish. For woollen cloths, for 
example, some half-dozen typical and distinct finishes could 
be cited, and the other styles are by no means without their 
varieties (see Fig. 53f). 

There can be no doubt but that more attention to the 
effects of " finish " is much to be desired. To thoroughly 
demonstrate the influence of each specific process the best 
method is to pass a suitable length of fabric through the 
necessary or desirable operations, and to cut off, say, a yard 
length from the fabric after each operation as a reference. 
Thus for a piece-dyed Botany coating reference lengths should 
be preserved of (a) warp and weft ; (b) grey cloth ; (c) scoured 
cloth ; (d) milled cloth ; (e) dyed and tentered cloth ; 
(/) raised cloth ; (g) cut cloth ; (h) steamed cloth ; and 
(i) pressed cloth. The record of all the foregoing reference 
samples should include (1) counts of warp and weft ; 
(2) threads and picks per inch ; (3) length and width ; 
(4) weight ; and (5) strength. Such records as these have 
been worked out in the Testing Laboratories of the Bradford 
Technical College during the past six to eight years, and 
are found to add most markedly to the efficiency, value and 
interest of the investigations undertaken. 



CHAPTEE X 



TEXTILE CALCULATIONS 



10" Yarn. 5 Threads. 




In a general sense most textile calculations have, and 
should have, reference to the ultimate cloth produced. 
It is true that there is a distinct " wool " trade, a distinct 
"top" trade, and a distinct "yarn" trade, each of which 
is in a sense independent of the cloth trade. It is never- 
theless obvious that all nomenclature, designation and 

indication should be on some basis < 1" > 

readily understood and easily applied 
by the cloth constructor. 

Unfortunately the " science of cloth 
construction " was developed so late 
that not one but many cumbersome 
methods had long been firmly established, 
so that to-day a considerable portion of 
the designer's and cloth-coster's time is 
wasted on calculations which, with full cognisance of all 
possible conditions, might easily have been eliminated by 
the adoption of convenient standard systems for counts of 
yarn, sets, etc. 

Starting from the cloth it is evident that the most useful 
designation for yarns would be in fractions of the inch (or 
of a decimeter). Thus l's yarn would have a diameter of 
1 inch, 2's of J inch, 3's of | inch, 4's of I inch, and so on, 



Fig. 49.— Illustrat- 
ing the Setting 
of Fabrics ; also 
the Weights of 
Fabrics. 



206 TEXTILES 

or that 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., threads might be laid side by side in 
an inch. The "set" calculations for cloths on this basis 
would be very simple. On this basis, as shown in Fig. 49, 
with plain weave, a 10's yarn would be set five threads per 
inch, a 20's yarn ten threads per inch, and a 40's yarn 
twenty threads per inch. Moreover, on this system, the 
weight of the cloth would vary in inverse proportion 
to the counts, for, as shown, the cloth with 20' s count is 
half the thickness or weight of the cloth with the 10' s 
count, the cloth with 40's count is half the weight of the 
cloth with 20's count, and vice versa. If the 10's count 
cloth was a 30 oz. cloth, the 20's count cloth would be a 
15 oz. cloth, and so on. Again, the " sets " or threads per 
inch and picks per inch for any given weave or interlacing 
would be simplicity itself. As shown in Fig. 50, for example, 
the threads and picks per inch would be — 

Counts of yarn X threads in repeat of weave. 1 
Threads + intersections in repeat of weave. 

2 
Thus with a 60's yarn in ^ twill the set should be — 

— - — = 40 threads and picks per inch. 

Of course the practical designer would slightly vary the 
set in accordance with the material he was using ; if rough 
and slackly twisted he would probably put 38 threads per 
inch, while if smooth, compact and hand-twisted, he might 
put 42 — 44 threads and picks per inch. He would also 
probably take into account the effects of finish, and, of 

1 This is a fairly accurate approximation for ordinary fabrics in 
which, warp and weft bend equally. Note that it is only applicable in 
this form if count equals the diameter of the yarn. 



TEXTILE CALCULATIONS 



207 



course, the handle of the ultimate texture 
he hoped to produce. 

Unfortunately this simple system is 
quite out of count, firstly, because yarn 
counts designate length and not diameter ; 
and secondly, because yarn and set 
numbers vary in different localities. 

Undoubtedly in the early days of the 

textile industry yarns were spun very 

irregularly and to unknown counts in any 

and every denomination. Then the idea 

of spinning a definite weight of wool, say 

6 lbs., to a given length of yarn, so that 

a given length of piece could be got out of 

it, would impress itself upon the more 

thoughtful spinners. Thus the Leeds 

" wartern " is 6 lbs., and if the yarn was 

spun to 1,536 yards, or 1 yard per dram, 

it was called l's count, if to 2 yards per 

dram, 2's count, and so on. In most 

localities, however, the unit of 1 lb. would 

be naturally adopted as the weight. 

Unfortunately there was not the same 

unanimity with reference to the length. 

To number 1 yard to 1 lb. l's count, 

2 yards to 1 lb. 2's count, 20 yards to 

1 lb. 20's count would be out of the 

question, as a very thick yarn would then 

have 256 as its number, and a fine yarn, 

say, 2,560 as its number. To reduce this 

count number to thinkable and workable 



m 0; 



Ph 



208 



TEXTILES 



proportions, in some cases the weight was reduced, 1 and 
in others the system of "hanking" was resorted to. But 
the localized character of the various industries unfor- 
tunately resulted in a varying weight and a varying 
number of yards per hank being adopted. In most count 
systems the hanks per lb. (avoirdupois) indicate the count. 
Thus 20's count equals 20 hanks per lb., 30's count equals 
30 hanks per lb., and so on. But the cotton hank is 



List IX. — Various Systems of Counting Yarns. 2 

Length constant. Weight variable. 









Yards per hank 


System. 


Weight. 


Length of Hank. 


x count, x by 

gauge point 

= yards per lb. 


Cotton 


lib. 


840 yards 


X 1 


Worsted . 


lib. 


560 yards 


X 1 


Linen and Hemp 


lib. 


300 yards 


X 1 


Eaw Silk . 


1 oz. 


Number of yards 


X 16 


Dewsbury 


1 oz. 


Number of yards 


X 16 


Yorkshire Skeins \ 
Woollen . . ) 


6 lbs. 


1,536 yards 


X "16 


Galashiels 


24 oz. 


300 yards 


X -66 


Hawick . ... 


26 oz. 


300 yards 

Cuts Yds. 


X -61 


Stirling and Alloa . 


24 lbs. 


48 X 240 (Spindle) 


X -04 


West of England 


lib. 


320 yards 


X 1 


German wool count . 


4 kilog. 


2,200 Berlin ells 




Kun (American) 


1 oz. 


100 yards 


X 16 


Out (American) 


lib. 


300 yards 


X 1 


Metric 


1 kilog. 


1,000 metres 


X -45 


French Metric . 


i kilog. 


1,000 metres 


X -9 



1 The Yorkshire system may be said to be based upon the yards per 
dram, and there is also a system based upon yards p er ounce, and 
1,000 yards per ounce. /. 

2 See Bradbury's " Calculations in Yarns and Fabrics." 



TEXTILE CALCULATIONS 



209 



840 yards; 1 the worsted, 560 yards ; the linen, 300 yards; 
Yorkshire woollen skein, 256 yards; West of England, 
420 yards ; and Galashiels, 300 yards for 24 oz. ; so that 
farther complexity has thus been introduced. With the table 
accompanying, however, the yards per lb. in any denomi- 
nation may readily be found, and from the yards per lb. 
any weight or diameter calculation readily worked out. 

List IXa. — Vakious Systems of Counting Yarns. 2 

Length constant. Weight variable. 



System. 


Unit of Length. 


Unit of 
Weight. 


Count. 


Halifax EuralDistrict 


80 yards 


Dram 


\ 




Jute, Heavy Flaxes 
and Hemp 


Cuts Yds. 
48X300 (Spindle) 


lb. 






Denier System . 
Dram System . 


Raw silk (476 
metres or 520 
yards) 
1,000 yards 


Denier 
Dram 


Repeats of 

i weiglit in 

/ length. = 

counts. 


unit 

unit 

the 


International Denier . 


500 metres 


\ deci- 
gramme 






Legal Silk count appd. 
in Paris, 1900 


450 metres 


^ deci- 
gramme 






American Grain 


20 yards 


Grain 


/ 





Curious to relate, the V of the yards per lb. of any 
material (with a suitable allowance of from 5 to 15 percent.) 

1 No doubt originating from a reel of a convenient circumference, 
with a convenient number of warps upon it. 

2 See Bradbury's " Calculations in Tarns and Fabrics." 

T. p 



210 TEXTILES 

gives the approximate working diameter of any yarn. 
Working backwards diameter 2 = the area of a square, and 
the area of a square varies inversely to length ; therefore the 
diameter varies inversely as the s/ of the length, and as 
count of yarn is in proportion to length therefore the 
diameter of a yam varies inversely as the V of the counts 
(that is denomination being the same). 

This accounts for the relationship of diameter of yarn 
and lengths or counts, but not for the V of the yards 
per lb. being the actual numerical diameter in fractions 
of an inch. This coincidence suggests that there is 
some method in the madness of the English lb., yard 
and inch, and that they are not merely haphazard 
standards. If the metric count system is adopted the 
V metres per kilogram X 2'4 = the threads per decimeter, 
the decimeter being the most convenient unit to adopt 
for sets. 

The most important systems of counting yarns with 
length constant and weight variable are given in List IXa. 

In the foregoing particulars the inch is taken as the 
basis. Unfortunately the inch has been taken as the basis 
in very few manufacturing districts. The reason for this 
is not far to seek. Bradford, for instance, apparently 
based its set particulars upon the yard, Leeds upon the 
I yard or 9 inches ; Blackburn upon 1 \ yards ; while 
possibly other districts, owing to French and Flemish 
immigration, based their sets upon the Flemish ell or 
French aune — f yards or 27 inches — which later possibly 
being converted into terms of the yard, would create further 
confusion. y 

But this is not all. It was evidently found convenient to 



TEXTILE CALCULATIONS 211 

warp with a given number of threads. In Leeds thirty- 
eight (termed a " porty ") were employed ; in Bradford 
forty (termed a " beer "), and so on. Thus it became 
customary for the set of a fabric to be denned by the 
number of times the threads warped with repeated in the 
standard width. Thus the Leeds "set "is the " porties " 
per-quarter (9 inches)," the Bradford set the "beers per 
36 inches or one yard." So little impregnated with scientific 
method are the textile industries even to this day that 
these very local standards are still in full use. Thus the 
man who speaks of threads per inch in Bradford or Leeds 
mills speaks in an unknown tongue, and is not in the 
least understood. Of course there is a tendency to reduce 
these sets to the threads per inch standard. Thus the 
Bradford man sometimes states the Bradford set as 
being based upon 1J threads per inch ; but even he is 
an exception and usually there is not the slightest 
endeavour to make the inch the standard ; in fact, there 
is antagonism of a somewhat violent character against any 
change. 

The following are the principal set systems with their 
gauge points for finding the threads per inch (see List X., 
p. 212). 

Some of the most difficult calculations and also some of 
the easiest possible calculations which the textile designer 
has to work out have reference to the weight per yard of the 
fabrics with which he deals. In the worsted coating and 
the woollen trade the weight per yard (usually 54 inches X 
36 inches) is the basis of all dealings ; in the stuff, cotton 
and other trades, although often stated, it is by no means 
so important. Now under simple conditions of yarns and 

p 2 



212 



TEXTILES 



set there is no difficulty in calculating the weight of a piece. 
The calculation simply stands — 

Yards of yarn in piece * ,, . . , . . 

- — - ; £ - -= = lbs. weight of piece, 

Yards per lb. ot yarn employed r 

, lbs. of cloth x 16 , 

and ; 7, — i — , ,, • r- = oz. per yard. 

length ot cloth m yards L J 

List X. — Various Systems of Indicating the Set. 



Locality and System. 



Yorkshire .- 



Bradford 

Leeds . 
HuddersfieldandU.S.A 



^Dewsbury 

r Bolton . 

T , Blackburn 

Lancashire ' Manchester 

vStockport 

o , , (Glasgow 

Scotch .{ Twee & d . _ 

-r> ij> i. j rLinen Plain, etc. 

B xt !l 1 ., Damask 

North of -[ " 

Ireland [ " 

Silk . " . 



Standard 

width 
in inches. 



36 
9 
1 

90 
24| 
45 
36 
2 
37 
37 
40 
30 
37 



Number of 

Threads in one 

Beer, Portie 

etc. 



40 

38 



Given Set to 
find ends 
per inch. 



xi-il 

X4-22 



Splits per inch X ends 
in splits. 



38 

40 

40 

2 

2 

2 

40 

2 

40 

2 



X -422 
X 1-64 
X -9 • 
X -055 
Xl 

X -054 
X 1-08 
X -05 
X 1-33 
X -054 



Ends per inch x reed width. 
Width of fabric, number of ends 
in each split. 



There are, however, a few complications likely to arise. 
Yarn counts may be in two or more denominations, threads 
of various counts or thicknesses may be twisted together 

1 This further extended is : 

Threads per inch X width in loom X yards long of warp 
Warp counts X hanks per lb. 
Picks per inch x width in loom X yardirlong of cloth 
Weft counts X hanks per lb. 



TEXTILE CALCULATIONS 213 

to form part or the whole of either warp or weft, warp and 
weft may be composed of several colours, there may be 
differences in shrinkage and loss in weight of warp and 
weft during finishing, and other disturbing influences of a 
less pronounced type. All the foregoing influences, with 
one exception, are either so easy of comprehension or are 
necessarily so dependent upon practical conditions that no 
attempt need be made to deal further with them here. The 
exception is the twisting together of yarns of varying 
thicknesses. For instance, what is the " count " of a 40's 
cotton twisted with a 40's cotton ; a 30's cotton twisted 
with a 40's cotton, and a 30's cotton twisted with a 60' s 
worsted ? 

There are really four methods of working out such 
problems as these. 

1st Method. — Base the calculation upon a yard of each 
material being twisted together. 

Thus the first calculation will stand — 
1 lb. 1 lb. 1 „ . , 



40 X 840 ' 40 X 840 16,800 

of 1 lb. .-. 1 lb. = 16,800 yards - 



16,800 "*-""•'* »» — -«,— j— — 840 
= 20's cotton counts. 

2nd Method. — Work upon the L. C. M. of the number, 
take this as the length in hanks and proceed as before. 
Thus the second calculation will stand — 
L. C. M. of 30 and 40 = 120 hanks as length for com- 
bination. 

rr^r —- = hanks per lb. = counts. 

"30 + 40 



214 



TEXTILES 



40 



60 



= 01142 Drams 
=-0076IDrams 



256 
'01903x560 



■0IS03Drams for 
I Yard of R.C. 



lib 



%lb 



40Hanks of 40 



40 Hanks of 60 



40Hanks = 

=1% lbs 

= 24 Hanks per lb 

= 24 s Resu/tant Count 



60Hanks of 40 



60 Hanks of 60 



60Hanks 

= Z'/2 lbs 

= 24 Hanks per lb 

= 24' s Resultant Count 




2 Ibi 



120 Hanks of 40 



120 Hanks of 60' S 



120 Hanks 

=5 lbs 

= 24 Hanks per lb 

■=24 ^Resultant Count 



60 lbs 



40 lbs 



24 00 Hanks of 40 s 



2400 Hanks of 60' s 



2400 Hanks 

^lOOIbs 

-24 Hanks per lb 

= 24 s Resultant Count 



Fig. 51. — Graphic Illustration of the Eesultant Counts of Twisting 
together two Threads of Different Counts. 



TEXTILE CALCULATIONS 215 



This is better stated as follows — 

Hanks. lbs. 

120 + 30 = 4 

120 -v- 40 = 3 



120 weighing 7 = 17 hanks per lb. or 17's counts. 

3rd Method. — Work by means of the suitable, if some- 
what large numbers, found by multiplying the two count 
numbers together. 

Thus the third calculation will stand — 

(60's worsted = — - — = 40's cotton), 
30 X 40 = 1,200 hanks. 

-. nor)' — foofj = hanks per lb. = counts. 
30 + "40 - 

The second method seems so much more covenient than 
the other two that it is most desirable to adopt it whenever 
possible. Its convenience is all the more marked when the 
prices of the yarns are given and the price per lb. of 
the resultant count is required; and again when three or 
more yarns are to be folded together. Such calculations 
are so simple in the light, of the foregoing that it is not 
considered necessary to treat them further here (see graphic 
illustrations). 

The changing of the weights of cloths presents one or two 
features which are somewhat curious and should be specially 
noted. For instance, to make cloths lighter — (a) Warp 
may be kept the same, and a thinner weft or fewer picks per 
inch of the same weft may be inserted ; or if the cloth is 



216 TEXTILES 

built on the square (b) the whole structure of the cloth 
may be changed and more threads and picks per inch may 
be inserted of a finer yarn. The explanation of this 
seemingly contradictory method is that to make a cloth 
lighter it must be made thinner (supposing that in the first 
place it is perfectly constructed), and to make it thinner 
a smaller diameter of yarn must be employed ; and with 
a smaller diameter of yarn more threads per inch, in 
exact proportion to the decreased diameter of the yarn, 
must be inserted to maintain the balance of structure. 
Thus the cloth is lighter because more threads and picks 
per inch indirectly imply a thinner cloth. Similarly, to 
make a cloth heavier fewer threads and picks must be 
inserted (see Fig. 49, p. 205). 

But these statements and facts are put in terms of the 
diameters of the yarns. To make it practical then — 
remembering that \/ counts is in proportion to the 
diameter — the rule will be — change the V counts of yarns 
inversely in proportion to the required change in weight, and 
change the threads per inch in proportion to the required 
weight change. An example will well illustrate this — 

Example. — A cloth is woven of 2/32's cotton, set 60 
threads and picks per inch and is required J heavier. 

f to become r l ; proportion = as 4 : 5. 

V% and x = 10*24 counts of say 



60 : x =48 threads and picks 



As 5 : 


4 


:: V 


16 : 


2/20's. 








As 5 : 


4, 


or 




As v 7 


16 


: V 


10-24 


per inch 









TEXTILE CALCULATIONS >2\1 

Proof 60 X 36 x 1 X 5 __ 48 x 36 x 1 

16 X 840 X 4 - 10-24 X 840 ' 

Another calculation of this type involves a change in 
weave as well as weight, but as no new principle is involved 
we refrain from giving it. The varieties of the foregoing 
calculations are unlimited, but practically all the principles 
involved have been touched upon ; a little common sense 
and mathematical instinct will lead to a speedy solution of 
any and all. 

The simplification of practical conditions to ensure 
speedy work may have claim to passing comment. 

Example. — A dress cloth when finished contains 88 ends 
per inch, and 80 picks per inch, is 63 yards long, 48 inches 
wide, and weighs 14 ounces per yard. It has shrunk 10 
per cent, in length, 12 per cent, in width, and lost i^th of 
its original weight. Ascertain the threads and picks per 
inch in the loom, length of warp and width of piece as in 
the loom, weight of material in the grey, and the finished 
and grey counts of yarn employed. 

Warp Finished. Warp in Loom. 

? Counts of yarn (worsted). ? < Wnts of yarn. 

88 ends per inch. ? Ends per inch. 

Wept Finished. Wept in Loom. 

? Counts of yarn. ? Counts of yarn. 

80 picks per inch. P Picks per inch. 

Length of warp finished 63 yds. Length of warp in loom, ? 

Width of piece finished, 48 ins. Width of piece in loom, ? 

Weight per yd. finished, 14 oz. Weight per yd. in loom, ? 
7 loss of original weight. 

To clearly state the problem like this is almost to 



218 TEXTILES 

answer it. For example, the ounces per yard in the loom 
stands — 

14 oz. + -} of the original weight = 14 oz. + ^ = 
16*33 oz. = per yard in loom. 
Again : 

As 168 (88 + 80 ends and picks per inch) : 88 : : 14 : x 

, , 88 X 48 X 1 X 16 ,„. K , 

= 7*3 oz. of warp, and =ns -pttf; = lo'o s 

r ' 7*3 x 560 

count (if worsted). 

Should the manufacturer be engaged in the Continental or 
South American trade it may be very desirable that he 
should work in the Metric System. All the foregoing 
principles may be readily applied in the Metric System 
by conversion, or, better still, directly by means of the 
following particulars : — 

Worsted counts -*- "885 = Metric counts. 

Metric counts X '885 = Worsted counts. 

Cotton counts -f- '59 = Metric counts. 

Metric counts X '59 = Cotton counts. 

Yorkshire skeins -"- 1*939 = Metric counts. 

Metric counts x 1'939 = Yorkshire skeins. 

In dram silk 515 -"- counts = Metric counts. 

515 — Metric counts = Dram silk counts. 

Threads or picks per inch X 39 = threads or picks per 
decimeter. 

Threads or picks per decimeter -f- 3 - 9 = threads or picks 
per inch. 

Bradford set X 4*33 = threads per decimeter. 

Threads per decimeter -"- 4*33 = Bradford set. 



TEXTILE CALCULATIONS 219 

Rule to find the threads per decimeter (i.e., fraction of a 
decimeter occupied) for any metric counts of yarn : 



\/MetreB per kilogram X 2*3 for woollen yarns. 1 
„ ,, ,, X 2"4 for worsted yarns. 

„ ,, „ X 2*5 for cotton yarns. 

Rule to find the threads per decimeter for any ordinary 
weave : 

Diameter of yarn in decimeters X Thread in repeat of weave 
Threads + Intersections in weave. 
= Threads per decimeter. 

Example : — Find the threads per decimeter for 2/18'h 

2 
cross-bred yarn employing ~ twill. 

J 9 x 1,000 X 2-4 = 233 and 

— ^ = 155 threads per decimeter. 

Spinning and Weaving Calculations. — In preparing, comb- 
ing, and spinning, calculations referring to both the 
machines employed and the materials passing through these 
machines frequently occur. The mechanical calculations 
involved cannot be entered into here. Nearly all spinning 
calculations involve the principle of drivers and driven, and 
most weaving calculations involve the principles of leverage, 
but the application of these simple principles are so varied 
that no satisfactory treatment of them could be given in 
the space at our disposal.' 2 

The calculations referring to weights of slivers in drawing 

1 Tho slight differences here are allowances lor the relative bulk i- 
ness of tho inaterialH of which the respective yarns are composed. 

2 Soo the " "Wool Sear Book," "Woollen and Worsted Spinning," 
etc. 



220 TEXTILES 

and spinning, however, should at least claim passing com- 
ment. The ultimate end of spinning is, as we have seen, 
to produce a strand or thread of a certain count, i.e., of a 
certain number of yards per pound (this is the simplest 
denomination). Now, working backwards one would expect 
the slivers always to be stated and calculated in yards per 
lb., and if it were so there would be many simplifica- 
tions of drawing and spinning calculations. But in practice 
it is found more convenient to reel for fairly fine slivers 40 
or 80 yards, and for thick slivers 10 yards. Thus English 
tops are placed on the market 7 ozs. per 10 yards. Botany 
tops are placed on the market 4 to 5 ozs. per 10 yards. 
An English top (say 40's quality) is usually made up in a 
ball about 230 yards long and weighing about 10 lbs. A 
Botany top (say 60's quality) is usually made up in a ball 
about 144 yards long, weighing about 5 lbs. Irrespective 
of these perhaps unnecessary difficulties drafting calcula- 
tions are comparatively simple, as a sliver loses in weight 
exactly in proportion to its extension or draft, and neces- 
sarily increases in weight in proportion to the doublings. 
Thus if 40 yards of a " top " weigh 240 drams, then with 
drafts 5, 6, 8, 8, 6, 9, 9 and doublings 6, 6, 4, 4, 3, 3, 2, 
40 yards roving will weigh 

240X6X6X4X4X3X3X2 n9 , , 

^ pr - 7j - - = 24 drams. 1 

5X6X8X8X6X9X9 3 

In calculating the drafts necessary to give a total draft 
a difficulty may occur owing to drafts multipling themselves. 
Consequently if, say, a total draft of 10,368 is required in 
seven operations, then logarithms or the slide rule must be 

1 See Buckley's "Worsted Overlookers' Hand-book," and" Woollen 
and Worsted Spinning," by Barker and Priestley. 



TEXTILE CALCULATIONS 



221 



resorted to, the </ of the total draft being the average 
draft which may now be varied slightly to suit particular 
operations. Thus a top weighing 280 drams per 40 yards 
has to be reduced to 7 drams per 40 yards, at seven 
operations, the doubling being 6, 6, 4, 4, 3, 3, 2. 

280 -=- 7 = 40 and log. of 40 = 1-602 * 

log. of 6 = 0-778 

6 = 0-778 

4 = 0-602 

4 = 0-602 

3 = 0-477 

3 = 0-477 

2 = 0-301 



7)5-617 

•802, log. of. 
Answer, = 6*3 draft required. 

Another calculation often misunderstood is the following : 
— To find the number of spindles in any part of the draw- 
ing or on the spinning frame, to follow any box of the 
drawing. If the question involved is simply between two 
boxes, say A and B, immediately following one another, then 
the weight taken by one spindle head on B divided into the 
weight given out by all spindle heads on A will be the 
answer. But should the frames in question be separated by 
other frames, for example, should the spinning spindles to 
follow the four-spindle drawing-box be required, then, 
although the same principle of weight -f- weight obtains, in 
addition the relative thickness, or, in other words, lengths 
of the respective slivers must be taken into account. 

Example : — A drawing-box A with 4-inch front rollers 
1 Log of draft required if there were no doublings. 



222 TEXTILES 

making 60 revolutions per minute delivers 240 drams per 
minute. What number of spinning heads B will be 
required if the diameter of the back rollers is 1J inches, 
making 5 revolutions per minute and taking in 8 drams 
per minute ? 

If A delivers the same length that B consumes, then 
240 inches = 240 drams per minute from A, 
240 -r- 8 = 30 heads or spindles on box B to follow box A. 
But B only takes in 7J inches relative to A giving out 
240 inches, so that 

240 -T- 7 \ = 32 times length of B is required to consume 
length delivered by A. 

Thus the total heads or spindles on B to follow A will be 
compounded of the weight difference and the length 
difference — 

30 X 32 = 960 spindles. 

It will be evident from the foregoing that many most 
interesting calculations occur in the textile industries. 
The points involved in these calculations are ordinary 
mathematical, geometrical, and trigometrical principles, 
and special principles and variations involved by the con- 
ditions obtaining in the industry. Many of the calculations 
could be materially shortened by the adoption of either the 
standard inch and pound or the metre and the gramme. 

The chief point which stands out, however, is the need 
for some universally intelligible system. If we in this 
country are not prepared to adopt our own standard of the 
inch and yard and the pound of 16 ozs., we must be prepared 
for the metric agitators to prevail— our weakness will be 
their strength. 



CHAPTEE XI 

THE WOOLLEN INDUSTRY 

The Wool Industry may be divided into four main classes, 
viz., the Woollen Industry, the Worsted Industry, the 
Stuff or Dress Goods and Lining Industry, and the Up- 
holstery or Tapestry Industry. Each of these has several 
subdivisions : thus the woollen industry may be considered 
to include the felt industry, the blanket industry, and in 
part the hosiery trade ; the worsted industry includes also 
a section of the hosiery trade, and in part the braid trade ; 
while the stuff or dress goods and lining industry includes 
many varieties almost attaining to distinct classes. The 
fourth class includes all pile fabrics of an upholstery type, 
and carpets and tapestry fabrics of a complex character. 

The word "woollen " originally referred to fabrics made 
of the best Continental wool spun on the spindle-draft 
system, simply woven, felted, and often highly finished. 
The old " doeskin " was a typical example of the woollen 
cloth, and the care and skill required for its production may 
be gauged by the fact that it frequently took six weeks to 
finish, and sold up to 30s. a yard broad width. The present- 
day army officers' cloths may also be taken as typical of 
what was understood by the term woollen " in the olden 
days." It also seems probable that cotton cloths made 
from yarn spun upon the spindle-draft system and woven 



224 TEXTILES 

into more or less soft fabrics were sold as woollens. About 
the year 1813 the re-manufactured materials made their 
appearance, and very quickly " catching on" became in- 
corporated into the woollen trade, so that to-day the legal 
definition of a woollen yarn may be taken — as a yarn 
composed of fibres of any class of materials which may be 
said to possess two ends, which just possesses the strength 
necessary to allow the shuttle to lay it in the shed. To-day 
woollen cloths partake too much of these last named 
characteristics. Verily our grandfathers would have wept 
aloud could they have foreseen the degradation which was to 
overtake their trade and calling. For they were proud of 
their goods and of their good name for honest dealing. It 
must not be supposed, however, that the introduction of 
the re-manufactured materials is entirely a retrograde step. 
It is surprising what sound goods the Dewsbury and Batley 
manufacturers can make from low-class raw materials, 
and we must not forget that thousands of the poorer classes 
are well clothed by this means who otherwise would have 
to go very meanly clad indeed. It is the passing of re- 
manufactured materials as pure wool which must be 
condemned. 

The better class woollen trade is located in the West 
of England, Huddersfield, Scotland, and Ireland. In the 
latter country it is not concentrated, but rather distributed. 

The medium class woollen trade is largely located in the 
Leeds district with branches westward into the dales of 
Yorkshire. 

The low class woollen trade is located in the Dewsbury, 
Batley, and Colne Valley district. The Continental woollen 
trade is very dispersed. In France, Elbeuf and certain 



THE WOOLLEN LNDUSTEY 225 

small towns like Sedan in the north are the principal 
centres. In Germany M.-Gladbach, Cottbus, Forst and 
Werdau are the main centres for cheap goods for men's 
wear. Verviers, in Belgium, is the centre of a large 
woollen spinning district, the yarns produced being 
shipped to England by the ton. In the north of Italy and 
in Spain woollen and worsted manufacture is developing, 
while Austria has a textile industry all too little known 
and appreciated in this country. 

The woollen centre in the United States of America is in 
the New England States, Philadelphia being the chief city 
involved. 

The supplies of material for these branches of the 
woollen trade are derived as follows : — For the fine trade 
Australian, Cape, South American, and Continental fine 
wools and some few fine cross-breds and English wools are 
employed ; for the medium trade coarser Australian, New 
Zealand, etc., cross-breds with slipe and skin wool, noils, 
etc.; and for the low trade shoddy, extract, mungo, etc., 
scribbled with cotton sweepings, etc., to hold the blend 
together, are largely employed. 

The woollen firm is usually self-contained, i.e., it takes 
in the raw material and delivers the finished cloth, and 
also often merchants it. There are a few spinners of woollen 
yarn who do not weave and finish, and the " Eag Grinders " 
or " Mungo and Shoddy Dealers " of Dewsbury, Batley, and 
Ossett, form a distinct class to themselves ; but these are 
the exception, not the rule. Thus a woollen mill will, as a 
rule, include the following machines or sets of machines : — 
Scouring Machines. 
Drying Machines. 
t. Q 



226 TEXTILES 

_ . , ^Placed in the Blending-room. 

Fearnaughts > 

Scribblers ^ 

Forming sets ot machines to prepare 
Intermediates r . . , . . ,, 

for a given number of spindles. 
Condensers ; 

Mules — pitch and number of spindles to follow cards. 

King Twisters. 

Warping, Dressing, Sizing and Drying Mills, and 

Machines. 

Looms to follow the spinning. 

Soaping Machines. 

Dollies. 

Hydro-Extractor. 

Milling Machines. 

Stocks. 

Crabbing Machines. 

Steam-Blowing Machines. 

Tentering Machines. 

Raising and Brushing Machines. 

Cropping Machines. 

Presses. 

Few mills possess complete sets of scouring bowls — say 
four or five bowls to the set — as the materials they employ 
are of such a varied character and comparatively so small 
in bulk that it pays better to buy bulk lots scoured and to 
keep a single machine for dealing with the greasy lots. For 
the same reason the space over the boilers is usually plated 
as a drying house, although of course the best firms employ 
drying machines of an approved type, which yield the wool 
up in a nicely open and dried condition. 



THE WOOLLEN INDUSTEY 227 

The willow is a very rough strong kind of card, which 
practically tears up and dusts the material, a fan and 
chimney being connected with it. The fearnaught is a 
nearer approach to the card, still more finely working the 
wool and ejecting it as a rule by means of an air blast. 

Materials to be blended together are first passed through 
these machines, then built into a stack, layer by layer, and 
oiled at the same time, then beaten down with sticks and 
again passed through the fearnaught. The blend is then 
allowed to mellow before being passed on to the carding- 
room. The scribbler card to which the material is subjected 
opens it out lightly, the intermediate card treats it more 
severely, while the condensing card ensures a regular film 
of wool and then divides this film up into a number — say 
120 films in 72 inches — of small slivers — count according 
to count to be ultimately spun to — which are wound on to 
the condensing bobbin ready for being passed on to the 
mule. On the mule these condensed slivers are at one 
operation drafted out to the counts required and twisted, or, 
if this would be too severe, they are first roved and then 
finally spun to the required counts. The following parti- 
culars respecting the relationships of the cards and mule 
spindles are useful and interesting (see p. 228). 

The operation following spinning and twisting is warping 
if the yarn is intended for warp. If the yarn is intended 
for weft it will have been spun directly on to spools fitting 
the power-loom shuttles ; if for warp, on to cops holding a 
large quantity, and, if possible, a definite length of yarn to 
avoid waste in "bits." Warping is best effected on the 
Scotch warping mill, although the cheese system has by no 
means fallen into disuse. Upon whatever system the warp 

Q 2 



228 TEXTILES 

Sets of Woollen Machinery for — 

Coarse Work. Fine Work. 

Scouring. Scouring. 

Drying Drying 

(Carbonizing). (Carbonizing). 

1 Willow. 1 Willow. 

1 Eearnaught. 1 Eearnaught. 

Blending Process : — Blending Process : — 

1 treble scribbler — breast and 3 1 double scribbler — breast and 2 

swift, Scotch intermediate feed. swifts. 

1 double carding engine — breast 1 intermediate — breast and 1 swift, 

and 2 swifts, double - doffer creel intermediate feed, 

condenser. 1 double carding engine — breast 

1 mule of 400 spindles. and 2 swifts, tape condenser. 

1 ring - twisting frame of 100 2 mules, 600 spindles each. 

spindles. 1 ring - twisting frame of 200 

spindles. 

is made a regular tension should be placed upon all the 
threads ; if of a coloured pattern, they must be in their 
correct order ; the right length should be accurately 
obtained, and the correct width for dressing on to the loom 
beam. Sizing follows, the idea here being to add a certain 
amount of strength to the yarn and to glue down the strong 
fibres and so ensure clear weaving conditions. Dressing 
and twisting follow, and then the warp is mounted in the 
loom. The favourite loom among woollen manufacturers 
now is the Dobcross, running at from 80 to 105 picks per 
minute. Several other firms also make woollen looms of 
an approved description. It is here interesting to note that 
in the woollen loom speed does not necessarily mean pro- 
duction, for woollen warps are frequently so tender that 
running at 80 picks per minute produces more cloth than 
running at 105 picks per minute. Of course for the cotton 
warps largely used in the low woollen and flannel trades 



THE WOOLLEN INDUSTKY 229 

much quicker looms may be employed, 110 to 120 picks 
per minute being frequently attained. 

As the woollen fabric leaves the loom it is unsightly, 
rough, and uncouth. But finishing changes all this. 
Scouring clears off the size, and, if skilfully done, also clears 
and develops the colours. Milling bursts the thread and 
gives a full-looking texture ; tentering levels the piece, 
taking out all creases ; crabbing fixes and gives lustre to the 
piece ; raising brings a pile on to the surface ; cropping levels 
it ; steaming fixes ; and wet-raising, boiling, etc., give a 
finely-developed permanent lustre. 

The following example illustrates how all the processes 
in woollen manufacture must be applied with a definite 
idea of attaining a particular type of finished fabric : — A 
Melton cloth is required in which the finished fabric shows 
little or no trace of threadiness, but is of a felt-like appear- 
ance. To begin with, a good, fairly short, felting wool is 
required ; this should be worked with as little drafting as 
possible, i.e., condensed fine and spun without roving. 
The warp and weft yarns should be spun with inverse 
amounts of twist-in and in the same direction, say, 
open-band. The twill of the weave, should a twill be 
employed, should run with the twine of the yarn, so that 
warp and weft " bed " into one another as much as possible. 
The fabric must not be too closely set, as the fibres must be 
given room to take a " finish." The thread structure must 
be cleared in the scouring, broken in the stocks, and consoli- 
dated in the milling machine. The surface fibres must be 
raised up by dry-raising and closely cropped off to leave a 
bare clear surface without pile. Should stiffening be 
necessary, this may be effected by washing off the soaped 



230 



TEXTILES 



G 



Cotton 



Wool 

or 
M un g 



Wool or Mungo Stack 
with Oil added. 



Willow 



Wool or Mungo and Cotton Stack 



Willow 



Fear- 
nought 



Condenser 
•Scribbler I— Intermediate _ Fee 



Condenser 



Mule (Spindles) 



Fig. 52. — Graphic Illustration of the Order pi Processes in Woollen 
Manufacture. 



THE WOOLLEN INDUSTRY 231 

piece with hard water or by adding the necessary stiffening 
agents. Needless to say, the better piece will be that 
which requires no stiffening agent. Should the fabric 
come out of the press too highly glazed, it should be re- 
steamed to give it the requisite clear but somewhat opaque 
Melton finish. 

Every distinct style of woollen fabric requires special 
attention in the finishing, as it is the finishing operations 
which make or mar the piece. A worsted cloth is largely 
made in the loom, but a woollen cloth is really made in the 
finishing. 

Woollen manufacturers largely merchant their own goods, 
as distinct from the stuff manufacturers, for example, who 
cater for the wholesale merchant houses. This is perhaps 
due to the fact that the woollen trade is largely a home 
trade, the manufacturing of woollen cloths — no doubt 
owing to its comparative simplicity — being spread over the 
world. Japan, for instance, already spins, weaves, and 
finishes woollens, but buys largely worsted tops and yarns. 

In Fig. 52 the relationships of the various processes in 
woollen manufacturing, one to the other, are shown. 



CHAPTER XII 

THE WORSTED INDUSTRY 

The worsted industry may be said to have risen with the 
growth and introduction of colonial wools into England. 
It may be true that its very name carries us back to an 
industry located in the village of Worsted, in Norfolk, but 
it is more than probable that did we enquire into this 
primitive industry we should find that it was principally 
based upon the production of fabrics which here will be 
treated under the heading of " Stuffs." For our present 
purpose, however, it will be convenient to include in this 
chapter all combed wool yarns and fabrics made entirely 
of such yarns, along with possibly a few exceptions in the 
shape of fabrics made of, say, worsted warp and woollen 
weft. If this is the division adopted, then it is necessary to 
point out that there are really two distinct branches of the 
industry — with, of course, many grades in between. Long 
wools (mostly English) have been combed and made into 
what are still known to our women-folk as worsted yarns 
from time immemorial. St. Blaize, a bishop of the fourth 
century, was the patron saint of the wool-combers, and for 
how long the industry had been established before his time 
it is difficult to say. We are fairly safe in assuming that 
prior to about 1830 worsted or combed yarns were made from 
long wool of a somewhat coarse and harsh character, and 



THE WORSTED INDUSTRY 233 

that the modern " Botany yarn " was unknown. Prior to 
1830 fine Continental wools would no doubt be placed on 
the market as hosiery yarns, but they would be spun on the 
woollen principle, and were no doubt synonymous with what 
are to-day termed " merino " yarns. From 1830 onwards 
the longer colonial merino wools were combed by hand, 
and about 1840 Lister (Lord Masham) first attempted the 
combing of short English wools (Southdown), and later of 
colonial wools, by mechanical means. Prior to this, 
attempts had been made to comb wool mechanically, but 
inventors were more concerned with the production of any 
mechanism which would comb wool, so that we are fairly 
safe in assuming that the combing attempted was with long 
wool. Curious to relate, Lister soon abandoned his attempt 
to comb short wool, becoming more interested in his " nip " 
comb, which was more suited to the long varieties of wool, 
leaving the field clear for the Holdens so far as this country 
was concerned, and Heilmann and the Holdens so far as the 
Continent was concerned. Thus, from 1850 onwards there 
has been a steady advance in the capabilities of the machine 
comb, until to-day the Heilmann and Noble combs will comb 
wools of, say, 2 inches, which even a few years ago would 
have been put on one side as being only suitable for cloth- 
ing purposes. The genesis of the wool comb is illustrated 
graphically in List I. Every stage therein forms a romance 
of industry. 

It was about the year 1879 that the fine woollen trade 
was " hit " by the introduction of fine wool " worsteds." 
Woollen manufacturers, who a few years previously had 
reckoned their profits in thousands or tens of thousands, 
either had to change on to the new style of machinery or 



234 TEXTILES 

had to close down. The fine black cloth — the standard 
clothing of the middle and upper classes — almost became 
a thing of the past. Thus it came about that the worsted 
industry, instead of being almost wholly concerned in the 
rougher sorts of wools, became more and more concerned 
in the finer wools, so that to-day it is impossible to say 
whether the prepared, combed, and drawn long wool yarns 
or the carded, combed, and drawn short wool yarns form 
the bulk of the trade. But during the past ten years, 
again owing to the large supply of a suitable medium wool 
— neither long nor short — what is known as the cross-bred 
trade has arisen. Cross-bred wools are usually carded, 
combed, and drawn, but the yarns produced cannot be com- 
pared to Botany yarns for softness and delicacy. To-day, 
owing to the tendency to produce a big carcass sheep, these 
wools form the bulk sorts of New Zealand and the coastal 
districts of Australia and South America, and the yarn and 
cloth trade in these wools is proportionately large. 

The worsted " top and yarn " trade is located in Bradford 
and district, but some few and not unimportant firms are 
outside this district. Worsted yarns of the fine, cross-bred 
and long wool type are woven, dyed, and finished in various 
parts of the country, each district, as it were, making a 
speciality of a certain style. Thus Huddersfield leads the 
world in the finest worsteds for men's wear ; Bradford and 
Halifax are pre-eminent for the cheap production of plain 
style worsteds for both . men's and women's wear ; and 
Scotland now consumes large quantities of cross-bred and 
Botany yarns, which are made into Scotch tweeds and other 
fancy worsted styles, mostly for men's wear. The corre- 
sponding Continental centres are Elbeuf and Aachen. Of 



THE WOBSTED INDUSTKY 235 

course, the correspondence is not exact. Thus, while 
Elberfeld makes linings similar to Bradford, no combing 
and spinning of moment is to be found there, and so on. 
Philadelphia and Jamestown are the corresponding United 
States centres. 

The worsted trade, as distinct from the woollen trade, is 
ofganized into several distinct divisions. It is true that in 
certain parts of the country there are firms who buy wool 
direct, or at the London sales, scour, comb, spin, weave, 
and finish it. But these firms are the exceptions, the trade 
as a whole being organized as follows : — 

1. The Wool Buyers. — This branch of the trade originally 
bought the wool from up and down the country or in 
London and resold it to the combers. Of late years, how- 
ever, there has been a tendency to combine this trade with 
the combing. 

2. The Combers. — This branch takes the raw material, 
scours it, prepares or cards, combs it, and places it on the 
market in the " top " form. 

3. The Spinners. — This branch deals with the "tops" as 
delivered from the combers, converting them by means of 
drawing and spinning processes into yarns. 

4. The Warpers and Sizers. — This branch deals with the 
warping and sizing of the spinning yarns prior to weaving. 
Thus, warpers and sizers frequently keep standard qualities 
of their spinners' yarns, and warp, size, and dress on to the 
manufacturers' loom beam to order. 

5. The Manufacturers. — This branch weaves into the 
required fabrics the yarns, etc., supplied by the spinner or 
the warper and sizer. 

6. The Dyers and Finishers.— This branch, now largely 



236 



TEXTILES 



The Wool Growing Industry 
Europe, Australasia, South America. Cape Colony, East Indies, &c. 



Wool Sales 
London, Antwerp, Liverpool, Sidney, Buenos Ayres, Private Treaty, &c. 



Woollen Industry. 



Washini 



Cardinq. 



Spinning. 



Weaving. 



Finishinq. 



Merchantini 



I 

Worsted Industry. 



Combing Industry. 



English Mohair, i 
Alpaca etc. ] 



Cross Bred, i Botany. 



Eng lis h 

Mohai r, 

Alpaca etc 



Spinning Industry. 



Cross Bred. 
GreyCo loured. 



• Botany. 
Grey.Coloured. 



Coatings. 



Weaving | 
Dress | 
Goods. ! 



Industry. 
Linings. 



Fa ncies 
Etc. 



Dyeing & Finishing. 
t 
Worsted , DressGoods 'Woollens. 
Coatings ' & Linings. ,' 



Me rchanti ng. 

] Foreign Trade. 
Home Tpade* ' Continental. 
! U.S.Aetc. 



Fig. 53a. — Graphic Illustration of Woollen and Worsted Industries. 



Raw Wool 



Preparing 
Boxes 



1 










2 










3 










4 










5 








to 
•c; 

03 









Strong 
Boxes 



Punch 



Comb 



Finisher 
Boxes 



Fig. 53b. -Graphic Illustration of Combing Processes for Long Wool 



238 TEXTILES 

organized as a combination under the title of the Bradford 
Dyers' Association, 1 scours, dyes, and finishes the immense 
variety of goods forwarded to its various branch works, 
each of these latter being specialized to deal with particular 
styles of goods. 

7. The Merchants. — The large wholesale houses in 
Bradford at one time almost controlled— and certainly 
developed — the Bradford trade. To-day there is mani- 
fested a tendency for manufacturing concerns to merchant 
their own goods, but notwithstanding this the merchant- 
ing trade of Bradford is in a very healthy condition. 

There are several minor branches of the trade in addition 
to the foregoing main divisions. Thus there are comb- 
makers, spindle-makers, loom-makers, and the designers 
and card-cutters. 

Sets of Machines from Wool to the Yarn. 

Botany. English. 

1 Willow. 1 Willow. 

1 Four-bowl Scouring Set. 1 Three or four-bowl Scouring Set. 

12 Cards. 1 Dryer. 

1 Backwasher. 1 Set of six Preparing-boxes. 

12 Sets of two Strong boxes. 6 Nip Combs. 

12 Noble Combs. 3 Sets of two finishers. 

12 Sets of two finishers. (Backwashing to be added if 

required.) 
About twelve Sets of Botany- 
drawing would be required to About six Sets of English Draw- 
follow this, which partly explains ing will be required to follow this, 
why the Combing and Drawing are 
organized as separate indiistries. 

It is not possible to give details of all the machinery 
employed in the industry, but the above indicated sets 

1 A few not unimportant dyeing and finishing firms are not in this 
combine. 



THE WORSTED INDUSTRY 239 

of machinery for English cross-bred and Botany yarn pro- 
duction, in conjunction with the information given in 
previous chapters on preparing, spinning, etc., will enable 
a comprehensive grasp of the subject to be obtained. 

In the worsted and woollen industries the type of work 
is so miscellaneous that weaving machinery is rarely supplied 
in .sets. In the cotton industry, however, sets are most 
carefully calculated for specific types of fabrics. 

Worsted looms may be run much quicker than woollen 
looms, an additional speed of at least 20 per cent, often 
being possible. As a rule, a greater shedding or boxing, or 
both shedding and boxing, capacity, is required in the 
worsted loom as compared with the woollen loom, as 
worsted goods are made in the loom, and not in the 
finishing, as are woollen goods. Extreme fancy woollens, 
however, are as difficult and complex in the making as 
fancy worsteds. 

The fabrics produced in the worsted trade may usually 
be classed under the heading of Botanies, cross-breds, or 
English. The plainer styles in all qualities are woven in 

234 

„, ?,, 7 twills and other standard weaves. For 

2 3 4 

women's wear, when fashion is favourable, large numbers of 

jacquard figured styles are produced, while for men's wear 

backed and double cloths and very complex schemes of 

interlacing and colouring are regularly to be met with. 

Special note should be made of the colouring, as the 

organization of the Botany coloured yarn trade of Bradford 

and Huddersfield is unequalled elsewhere in the world, 

unless it be in the Lyons silk trade. 

The finishing of worsted goods has been defined in the 




Km. .'piii 1 Qraphlo 1 1 in:; i ral km i nr i iir (\ milling ProooBjes'ror Short Wool, i and 3, wools 
in iin i routed -, S, blond of wools (1) and (8) ; i. B, (J and 1 , washing bow la ; 8, dryer (not 
always used); 0, carder ; 10, baokwasher ; ii and 12, strong boxes: 18, punoli for 
balling slivers fbroomb : i -i, Noble oomb ; 16, 1st tlnisher; 18, and finisher. Note, The 
bolanoe of maohines in not here preserved ; tlms one set of soourlng would keep 
perhaps I wel> s oombs running (see p 188) 




2 
1 

CO 







Fiol 53d. — Graphic Illustration of the Drawing and Spinning 
Processes on the French, English, Merino (Open), and Meriuo 
(Cone) Systems. 



T. 



242 



TEXTILES 



chapter on " Finishing." Note should be made, however, 
of the fact that there are to-day many " worsted finishes." 
Time was when worsted coatings invariably wore " greasy." 
Such is not the case to-day — at least, not if the finisher 
has done his work well. Again, worsteds may be produced 
soft or crisp at will by maintaining satisfactory conditions. 
Thus, just as in the case of the woollen cloth, the final 
product is decided by the primary selection of the raw 
material, by the way in which that material is prepared 
and spun, by the way in which the fabric is constructed 
and woven, and finally by the finishing. It is not one but 
all these factors which must be considered carefully if 
characteristic worsted cloths are to be produced. 

The merchanting branch of the trade may be con- 
veniently divided into the " home trade " and the " shipping 
trade." Owing to this division and to the variety of textiles 
produced, it is questionable whether Bradford should be 
considered a city of one trade. It is further questionable 
whether the total trade fluctuation is greater than in a city 
of recognized diversified trades, such as is Leeds. 

The following tables, taken from Mr. F. Hooper's 
" Statistics of the Worsted and Woollen Trades," convey 
useful information respecting the " top," yarn, cloth, and 
dress-stuff trades. 

List XI. — Exports of Wool- Waste, Noils, and Tops. 







Total. 












lbs. 




£ 


1890 


21,648,300 




1,390,065 


1895 


31,508,600 




1,738,270 


1900 


37,521,700 




2,125,939 


1905 


58,806,900 




3,797,401 


1907 


57,438,600 


/ 


4,380,411 


1908 


55,206,100 




3,523,000 



THE WOKSTED INDUSTRY 



243 



List XII. — Exports op Combed or Carded Wool and Tops. 



Chief 
Countries. 


1905. 


1906. 


1907. 


To 


lbs. 


£ 


lbs. 


£ 


lbs. 


£ 


Russia . 

Sweden . 

Germany 

Belgium. 

Spain 

Italy . . 

Japan 


1,380,700 
4,229,400 
15,189,100 
1,668,500 
1,130,000 
5,189,700 
2,186,000 


100,122 
301,727 
1,033,173 
107,976 
93,025 
353,016 
232,190 


2,400,000 
4,650,200 
16,605,300 
1,736,600 
1,347,300 
5,620,900 
2,127,700 


194,834 
366,161 
1,265,795 
139,034 
119,161 
430,787 
257,077 


2,766,600 
4,806,200 
13,808,600 
2,322,6,00 
1,172,600 
4,459,000 
2,253,400 


231,071 
389,818 
1,090,585 
179,421 
106,128 
364,118 
267,511 


Total 
Exports 


35,386,300 


2,529,395 


38,648,600 


3,095,664 


35,811,300 


2,962,893 



List XIII. — Woollen and Worsted Yarns. 





Imports. 


Exports. 




Weight in lbs. 


Value in £ 


Weight in lbs. 


Value in £ 


I860 


3,007,711 


472,363 


27,821,37s 1 


3,852,998 1 


1865 


4,392,090 


998,784 


31,671,254 


5,429,504 


1870 


10,294,415 


1,635,154 


36,605,076 


5,182,926 


1875 


12,428,142 


1,472,936 


36,523,627 


6,065,911 


1880 


14,947,679 


1,842,135 


33,464,300 


4,222,693 


1885 


15,888,078 


1,995,801 


55,684,900 


5,580,669 


1890 


16,379,985 


1,935,061 


54,042,400 


5,260,925 


1895 


19,597,211 


2,042,887 


78,813,500 


7,258,968 


1900 


20,525,494 


2,163,873 


72,568,000 


6,123,349 


1905 


28,274,834 


2,697,298 


70,707,400 


6,173,241 


1907 


27,075,880 


2,684,779 


82,702,600 


8,569,682 


1908 


22,495,655 


2,302,940 


71,303,600 


6,616,952 



Is for 1862, not 1860. 



R 2 



244 



TEXTILES 



List XIV. — Manufactures of Wool. 



Year. 


Imports. 


Exports, i 




Value in £ 


Value in £ 


1860 


1,673,197 


16,847,956 


1865 


1,910,758 


26,669,636 


1870 


3,096,257 


27,664,051 


1875 


4,134,213 


29,081,836 


1880 


7,079,848 


23,934,541 


1885 


6,868,837 


26,571,537 


1890 


7,938,918 


29,175,989 


1895 


10,183,586 


30,594,568 


1900 


8,504,782 


25,946,037 


1905 


8,697,121 


32,239,922 


1907 


7,007,775 


38,121,270 


1908 


6,129,099 


31,804,445 



1 In this column flocks, shoddy, wools, and waste are included. 



List XV. — Imports of Wool Dress-stuffs. 



Country. 


1905. 


1906. 


1907. 




Yards. 


£ 


Yards. 


£ 


Yards. 


£ 


From, 

France .... 
Germany . . . 

Belgium .... 
Other Countries . 


77,147,636 
5,572,278 

5,026,858 
10,549 

90,275,980 
11,957,942 


5,481,166 

400,186 

237,848 

549,482 

553 


76,804,595 

6,160,626 

2,814,818 

5,240,970 

14,361 


5,369,811 

392,767 

267,326 

557,370 

1,134 


60,019,751 

5,245,820 

2,970,491 

6,140,63S 

13,835 


4,319,932 

430,905 

291,861 

608,424 

1,317 


Less Re-exports . . 


6,669,235 
637,838 


91,035,370 
10,371,554 


6,588,408 
570,749 


74,390,535 
10,216,434 


5,652,439 
606,143 


Net Imports . . . 


78,318,038 


6,031,397 


80,663,816 


6,017,659 


64,174,101 


5,046,296 



THE WORSTED INDUSTRY 



245 



List XVI. — Impoets of Wool Cloths. 



Country. 


1905. 


1906. 


1907. 


Yards. 


£ 


Yards. 


& 


Yards. 


& 


From 

Grewnany . . 
Holland . . 
Belgium . 
France . . 
Other 

Countries 


1,019,749 

2,623,690 

362,463 

52,143 

49,103 


155,001 

398,825 

50,564 

4,769 

3,180 


771,668 

2,800,665 

233,163 

37,793 

46,275 


126,195 

386,490 

35,927 

3,156 

4,245 


520,425 

2,290,203 

227,138 

174,018 

35,418 


89,236 

295,860 

34,457 

20,124 

3,588 


Less Ee-exports 


4,107,148 
283,434 


612,339 
50,009 


3,889,564 
329,990 


556,013 
60,486 


3,247,202 

452,744 


443,265 

71,984 


Net Imports 


3,823,714 


562,320 


3,559,574 


495,527 


2,794,458 


371,281 



CHAPTEE XIII 

THE DRESS GOODS, STUFF, AND LININGS INDUSTRY 

It is probable that from the earliest days dress goods 
and fabrics generally destined for women's wear have been 
very diversified in material, texture, and design. Tapestries 
might be more elaborate in design and richer in texture, 
but certainly not so varied in style. It is probable that for 
centuries wool textures have occupied a leading position for 
women's ordinary wear. Coarse woollens of the " winsey " 
type were no doubt manufactured in bulk for the lower 
classes ; somewhat finer fabrics of the serge type would be 
the bulk sorts for the better classes along with cashmeres ; 
while the upper classes would more largely patronize silks. 
Linen was of course largely used as an under-wear, and it 
is more than probable that, prior to the introduction of the 
cotton frock, linen fabrics would be used for a similar 
purpose. Our Eastern trade, dating from the seventeenth 
century resulted in the introduction of fine cotton goods 
in the shape of muslins, etc.; but it was quite late in 
the day before we were able to manufacture these and 
produce somewhat similar styles in wool under the name 
of " mousseline-de-laine." It is thus quite easy to under- 
stand how the Dress Goods trade' of to-day has come 
to be so comprehensive in its employment of nearly 



DRESS GOODS, STUFF, AND LININGS INDUSTRY 247 

every textile fibre and every possible combination of the 
same. 

Prior to about 1837 all wool (woollen or worsted), all silk, 
all linen, and some few wool, silk, and linen combinations, 
were the standard styles. With the introduction of cotton 
warps about this time the possibilities of the combination 
or various materials was more fully realized, resulting in 
what is known as the " Stuff Trade." Thus cashmere 
cloths, which, prior to this period, had been made from wool 
warp and wool weft, were made with cotton warp and wool 
weft ; the Italian cloth, again a cotton warp and wool weft 
style, was introduced or re-developed ; the use of mohair in 
conjunction with cotton was exploited, resulting in the 
discovery of a whole range of fabrics variously spoken of as 
Sicilians, Brilliantines, Orleans, etc. ; and a little later Sir 
Titus Salt placed his far-famed Alpaca styles upon the 
market. Thirty years later, and the mercerizing of cotton 
again upset the commercial equilibrium of Bradford. 
Mercerized goods in a pure form have partially taken the 
place of the ordinary botany weft Italian, and in their 
varieties in the shape of lustred (Schreinered) goods and 
blistered or crepon styles have made a lasting impression 
upon the fancy dress goods trade. 

Largely owing to being first in the field, and to very 
successful spinning, Bradford has well maintained its lead 
in such dress goods as involve the employment of English 
wools, mohair, alpaca, etc., these being termed hard goods 
as distinct from the soft Botany styles. With these latter 
styles the French always seem to have been the most 
successful, simply because of the style of spinning adopted. 
Bradford early adopted the Danforth spindle or cap frame, 



248 



TEXTILES 



Warp 



Win ding 



Warping 



Drsiving n 
4 Sieylng 



Yarn 



Single 



Yar\ns 



]C 



E 



Warp 



Warping, Sizing 
& Dressing. 



We a vi ng 



Weft 



Fig. 53e. — Warping, Sizing, Dressing, etc., Processes. 

a spinning machine admirably adapted for the production 
of sad, solid Botany yarns 1 typically suited to the Italian 

1 Roughness must not be mistaken for fulness. The cap frame can 
only be considered to spin a ' ' full " yarn ij* comparison with the flyer 
frame. 



DEESS GOODS, STUFF, AND LININGS INDUSTRY 249 

and worsted coating trades. France placed its faith in the 
mule, and by the time of the Great Exhibition in 1851 had 
already made a name for soft mule-spun fabrics. From that 
time to the present, notwithstanding both public and private 
endeavours, France has well held her own. True it is that 
when fashion favoured the hard stuffs of Bradford, Eoubaix 
setiously discussed the possibility and advisability of 
adopting Bradford's method of spinning ; but upon the 
whole they have lost nothing by keeping to the mule. 
Within the last two years Bradford has again seriously 
considered the advisability of producing more mule-spun 
yarns, the Chamber of Commerce taking a strong lead in 
the deliberations held, and several firms have now suc- 
cessfully overcome the difficulties, both practical and 
economical, and are placing on the market mule-spun 
worsted yarns as satisfactory and as cheap as the French 
yarns. In such goods as Amazons these mule-spun yarns 
are employed as warp with a woollen yarn as weft. This 
woollen yarn, of which tons are used in Bradford and 
Scotland alone, is spun in Belgium and France, no English 
firm having yet been successful in its economical pro- 
duction. With the success that has attended the attempts 
to produce mule-spun worsted yarns still markedly in 
evidence, it will be a strange thing if Bradford does not 
seriously attempt and succeed in producing this most 
important woollen yarn. 

The Dress Goods, Stuff, and Lining trade is almost wholly 
located in Bradford and district. In mohairs Bradford still 
has a practical monopoly, although the piece trade is 
threatened by the export of " tops " and " yarns " to Conti- 
nental centres and the United States. In all hard stuffs 



250 TEXTILES 

Bradford still leads, although both the United States and 
the Continental centres are gradually becoming proficient 
in the manipulation of English and cross-bred wools of the 
long type. Koubaix is the great rival of Bradford, in France, 
and Gera-Greiz, Tittan, Barmen, Elberfeld, Meerane, and 
Glauchau in Germany. In the United States the mills are 
so much engaged in the production of bulk sorts in the 
local wools that little endeavour has been made to produce 
Bradford's finest styles, which are thus still imported in 
fairly large quantities. 

The supplies of raw materials are derived as follows : — 
Oldham and Bolton supply the cotton warps, usually spun 
from best Egyptian or Sea Island cotton, but sometimes from 
American; Asia Minor, the Cape, and to a small extent 
Australia, supply mohair ; South America supplies alpaca, 
vicuna, and llama wool ; India supplies cashmere and other 
wools ; England, New Zealand, and South America supply 
long and cross-bred wool ; and Australia, the Cape, and 
South America supply the fine Botany wools required. 1 
Spun silks are now manufactured in Bradford and, close 
to, at Brighouse, the raw material largely coming from 
Asia and the latest from the Congo State ; while the net 
silks required are obtained from Macclesfield, the Continent, 
or China and Japan. 

The organization of spinning has been dealt with under 
the heading of the Worsted Industry. So many and varied 
are the materials and counts of yarn used by the dress 
goods manufacturer that it would be an economic impossi- 
bility for him to spin the yarns he requires ; he must buy 
on the open market. / 

1 Canadian merino wool is just beginning to appear in Bradford. 



DEESS GOODS, STUFF, AND LININGS INDUSTRY 251 

Cotton warps are delivered in Bradford in the " ball " or 
"chain" form, and are dressed in the factories on to the 
loom beam. Mule-spun and delicate wool warps are sized 
and run directly on to the loom beam by the warpers and 
sizers, who supply the yarn at a definite price per pound on 
the loom beam. If it were possible to hank-dye and wind 
1-40's cap-spun yarn without undue waste, Bradford would 
soon develop a coloured dress goods trade. As it is France 
still retains by far the greater part of this lucrative section of 
the industry, as Bradford is largely limited to piece-dyeing. 

The dress goods manufacturer restricts his energies to 
the warping and dressing of his yarns and the weaving of 
the same. His looms may be plain looms, box looms 
(frequently boxes at one end only), dobby looms or 
jacquard looms. As the trade is very liable to violent 
fluctuations from figured styles to plain styles, most fancy 
manufacturers make arrangements to sling their jacquards 
up and employ their looms as tappet or dobby looms as 
occasion demands. The looms used are largely made in the 
West Riding of Yorkshire. The number of looms in a shed 
will vary from 50 to 500 or even 1,000 with the accompany- 
ing warping, dressing, twisting, weft-room, and grey-room 
arrangements. The organization is comparatively simple 
as compared with a combing and spinning mill. 

Some so-called manufacturers have no looms at all, 
getting their goods woven by "commission weavers." 
These firms are usually very limited in their turnover, 
although it is but fair to add that there have been some 
remarkable exceptions. 

"When figured goods are in fashion the designers and 
card-cutters form a very important section of the trade. 



252 TEXTILES 

The larger firms keep their own designing staff and card- 
cutters, but the smaller firms usually employ one of the 
independent public designing and card-cutting firms, who 
supply sketches to select from, point paper designs, and 
cut cards at a comparatively small price. 

The styles of fabrics produced range from plain cloths to 
elaborate figures. The following particulars respecting 
(1) a plain lustre fabric ; (2) a figured lustre fabric ; (3) an 
all-wool Botany dress serge (cap-spun); (4) an Amazon or 
soft dress fabric ; and (5) a Botany Italian, will give a good 
idea of the variety of texture to be met with in this trade. 

1 . Plain Lustre Fabric : 

Warp. Weft. 

All 2/80's Egyptian or Sea All 1/1 2's Grey Mohair or Lustre 

Island Black cotton. English. 

40's reed l's = 40 threads per 46 picks per inch. 

inch. 

Cross -dyed black, lustre finish. 

2. Figured Lustre Fabric : Ground weave plain. 

Warp. Weft. 

All 2/100's bleached Egyptian or All 1/32's White Mohair. 

Sea Island cotton. 72 to 76 picks per inch. 

32's reed 2's or 64's reed l's = 

64 threads per inch. 

Finished White. 

3. All-Wool Serge : Weave 2/2 Twill. 

Warp. Weft. 

All 2/56's Cap-Spun Botany. All 1/30's Botany. 

16's reed 4's = 64 threads per 64 picks per inch, 
inch. / 

Eyed any shade required, and given ordinary serge finish. 



DRESS GOODS 



Crabbing 



ySteaming \ 



Scouring 

& 
Drying 



Singeing 



Dyeing 



Do/lying 



Steaming 



Drying 



Singeing 



Dollying 




Drying 



Tentening 



Pressing 



CLEAR FINISH 
SCOTCH TWEEDS WORSTED COATINGS 



Scouring 



Raising 



Milling 



Washing 




Drying 



Damping 



Steaming 



Cutting 



Pressing 



Steaming 



E 



Measuring 



Folding' 



Scouring 




Raising 

T~ 



Cutting 



Pressing 

n 



Rigging 
Folding 



Steaming 



Pigging 
Folding 



Light 
Pressing 



Fig. 53f. — Graphic Illustrations of Dress Goods, Scotch Tweeds, and 
Worsted Coatings Finishing Processes. 



254 TEXTILES 

4. Amazon : Weave : reverse o Sateen Warp Face. 

Warp. Weft. 

All 2/56's Cap-Spun Botany, All 40 Skein Woollen. 

or 1/30's Mule-Spun Botany. 36 to 40 picks per inch. 

24's reed 3's = 72 threads per 
inch. 

Dyed any shade required, and given a Venetian or Doeskin finish. 

5. Italian : Weave : 5 Sateen Weft Face. 

Warp. Weft. 

All 2/50's Black Cotton. All 1/60's Botany (grey). 

20's reed 4's. 120 picks per inch. 

Dyed black, and given a solid lustrous Italian finish. 

The finishing of dress fabrics, etc., is almost wholly in 
the hands of the Bradford Dyers' Association, although, as 
previously remarked, there are a few not altogether un- 
important firms outside the combine. If the combine has 
maintained prices at a high standard, it is but fair to add 
that they have made most marked advances in the methods 
of dealing with the large variety of goods continually 
pouring into their works, and, in addition, have introduced 
some new finishes of surpassing excellence. 

As in the case of the worsted coating industry, there are 
two marked divisions of the dress goods trade — the home 
section and the export or shipping section. Again, some 
firms merchant their own goods, and others work in con- 
junction with the large merchant houses. Unfortunately, 
Bradford trade terms are not standardized as are Manchester 
terms, so that conditions of sale and purchase vary con- 
siderably — sometimes for the good of the industry, but, 
upon the whole, to the detriment of the industry. 

The recent development of Bradford's trade in mercerized 



DRESS GOODS, STUFF, AND LININGS INDUSTRY 255 

goods is worthy of more than passing comment. When, 
between 1890 and 1900, Bradford first took up this trade 
it was supposed that it would ultimately drift into Lanca- 
shire. Although this has partly occurred, Bradford has 
considerably more than held its own, and to-day is making 
large quantities of these goods for both the home market 
and for export. Of course this trade has cut at the spun 
silk and in part at the Italian industry, but upon the 
whole the gain has been much greater than the loss. 



CHAPTEK XIV 

THE TAPESTRY AND CARPET INDUSTRY 

The tapestry and carpet industries are frequently but 
not always allied. It is but natural that we should be able 
to trace the arts of tapestry and carpet weaving more 
definitely and perhaps farther back than the art of weaving 
ordinary fabrics, which, being simpler, did not claim 
the attention that the production of elaborate tent drapings 
claimed in the early days of the human race. As already 
pointed out, it was but natural that elaborate figure 
weaving should early develop in the family period of the 
industry, and that elaborate styles of an artistic character, 
unsurpassed even in these days, were to be met with not 
only in the eastern but also on the outskirts of the western 
Eoman Empire. The Normans, for example, controlling the 
labour of England, built cathedrals and churches ; in Sicily 
they not only caused churches to be built, but most 
elaborate and inspirited tapestries to be woven. 

The draw-boy loom was introduced into England from the 
East during the Middle Ages, and it was no doubt already 
largely employed on the Continent. This mechanism 
certainly facilitated the production of large repeating pat- 
terns to a very considerable extent. Early in the nine- 
teenth century Jacquard, with some more or less important 
improvements on the machines of his predecessors 



THE TAPESTRY AND CAEPET INDUSTRY 257 

and contemporaries, produced what is known as the 
Jacquard loom, and about 1830 this machine was success- 
fully combined with the power-loom and made almost 
as complete a success as the ordinary plain power-loom. 
So little was the success of the Jacquard power-loom 
known outside the Bradford district, however, that the 
writer well remembers in the year 1884 or 1885 a 
supposed authority in the trade questioning whether it 
ever could be a success as a power-loom, i.e., twenty or 
thirty years after it was running by the hundred, or 
perhaps thousand, in the Bradford district. To-day the 
tapestry loom is a magnificently harmonised combination 
of Jacquard, dobby or tappets, box motion, letting-off 
and taking-up motion, and is employed upon the simplest 
kinds of tapestries, consisting of little more than reversed 
warp and weft sateens, up to imitations of the Gobelin 
tapestries. In Fig. 54 a standard tapestry structure is 
illustrated. 

The carpet trade may be divided into three branches, 
viz., double-structure or Kidder or Scotch carpets, tufted 
carpets, and true pile carpets. Double-structure carpets, 
no doubt, had their origin in stoutly woven fabrics to be 
employed as floor coverings, probably in the first instance 
for the ladies' apartments of the old baronial castles in 
the place of rushes, etc. To make a stouter and better- 
wearing carpet would naturally lead to the weaving of 
two cloths together, and from this would come the idea 
of figuring by an interchange of the two cloths — back to 
face and face to back — the colourings of back and face 
fabrics being designed to give the utmost value to this 
change (see Fig. 55). A special form of the Jacquard loom 

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Fig. 54. — Simple Tapestry Structure and Design. 



THE TAPESTEY AND CAEPET INDUSTEY 259 

to facilitate the figuring of these goods was also a natural 
outcome. 

Tufted carpets undoubtedly came to us from the East 
in the first case, Turkey carpets being probably known 
long before any attempts were made to produce such 
fabrics in western Europe. Largely owing to the definite 
endeavours of French statesmen — Colbert, for example — 
tufted fabrics were made in France during the sixteenth 
century, and from that date to this the noted Gobelin 
factory has been turning out most elaborate examples of 
these fabrics, in many cases reproducing with a most 




Fig. 55. — Scotch. Carpet Structure. 

wonderful exactitude the paintings of the most celebrated 
French artists. A more practical, if somewhat less artistic, 
hand-loom woven style of tufted carpet was developed 
during the seventeenth century, and owing to James I., 
in the seventeenth century, introducing this industry 
from Flanders into Axminster, in Devonshire, these carpets 
have become known as Axminster carpets. Briefly, they 
consist of a firm canvas back or foundation cloth — woven 
at the same time as the tufts are introduced — into which, 
row by row, tufts of the colours necessary to produce the 
pattern are firmly latched in by hand, and cut to the right 
length. Thus the only limit to this type of design is the 

s 2 



260 



TEXTILES 



number of tufts which it is possible to insert across and 
lengthwise of the carpet. As these tufts are now introduced 
mechanically from bobbins held on bars across the "fell" of 
the piece, and as the number of bars from a practical point of 
view must be limited, so is the form design limited in both 
warp and weft direction (see Fig. 56). There is, however, 
no colour limitation save such as economy imposes. The 
Axminster power-loom was invented by Mr. Alexander Smith 
and Mr. Halcyon Skinner in the United States of America 
about the year 1856, but it took some twenty years to estab- 
lish itself in this country. Many modifications of Axminster 




Fig. 56. — Axminster Carpet Structure. 

carpets are now placed upon the market. In the most 
important of these the tufts of colour required in one line 
across the ultimate carpet are first woven into a gauze thread 
to form a " chenille " yarn, as many of these variously 
coloured tufted threads being woven and cut as is necessary 
to produce the pattern in the carpet, line by line. These are 
then most exactly woven along with the ground texture of the 
carpet, the loom throwing in, say, three ground picks, then 
the coloured chenille pick, and then stopping until the 
weaver has placed this in " register" to continue exactly the 
pattern already produced by the previous coloured chenille 
picks. Then the weaver touches a pedal and the loom 



THE TAPESTEY AND CAEPET INDUSTEY 261 

again repeats its four picks and stops. There are many- 
varieties of these carpets, but such is the basis of structure 
and production of all. 

How long wire pile carpets — now called Brussels, Wilton 
and Tapestry carpets — have been in vogue is difficult to 
estimate. As the name " Brussels " indicates, the industry 
originally came to us from Flanders, probably being intro- 
duced into Wilton in the year 1770, the development of 
this industry, as in the case of many other industries, being- 
due in part to the definite interference and endeavours of 
certain of our sovereigns, and in part to the Continental 
religious persecutions, which drove skilled fugitives to our 
shores. Once here, it naturally spread, Glasgow, for 
example, probably receiving its carpet industry from Bristol 
by sea, just as Glasgow, in the early part of the nineteenth 
century, came across the Cashmere shawl from its shipping 
connection with the East, and evolved it as the "Paisley 
shawl." Of course, the first pile carpets were hand-woven, 
but in 1844 to 1850 the United States of America, always 
on the look-out for labour-saving contrivances, brought 
out the wire-loom (Bigelow's), in which every motion, from 
the shedding to the insertion of the wire, was controlled 
mechanically. Messrs. Crossley, of Halifax, soon took up 
this mechanism, and upon it built up a colossal concern. 
They were later followed by others, who applied the 
mechanism in a variety of ways. The three varieties of 
this structure are formed as follows : — The true looped 
Brussels is formed by looping wires and distinct coloured 
threads (or " frames ") for every colour in each row length- 
wise of the carpet (see Fig. 57). These coloured threads 
are lifted over the wires by the Jacquard (i.e., lifted as 



262 



TEXTILES 



required for the insertion of the wires) to form the required 
pattern. The Wilton carpet is but a cut "Brussels" with 
certain slight modifications — for example, a slightly modi- 
fied ground structure and a longer pile. The tapestry 
carpet is produced from but one pile warp, this warp having 
the required pattern printed on it in an elongated form, so 
that when the take-up in weaving is effected the right 
proportions for the true development of the design will 
result. As would be expected, the pattern is not so clearly 



fr^) fr^\ (rh f% f% (f% tf% ^% /rt 




/ \ / \ / v i\ I \ i\ i\ i\ 



XL 



Eig. 57. — Brussels Carpet Structure. 

defined as in the Brussels or Wilton carpets, and as it does 
not contain so much material — having only one pile warp 
in place of several — it is not so elastic and consequently 
does not wear so well. The greatest defect of the Brussels 
or tapestry carpet is the tendency to " sprout," i.e, to have 
long lengths of pile pulled out of them by a nail in a shoe, 
etc. This, of course, cannot occur with Axminster or 
Wilton carpets ; hence their advantage. Well-woven 
Brussels carpets, however, should never develop this defect 
with fair usage. An interesting |aet about Brussels, etc., 
carpets is that if they are not woven in squares they are 



THE TAPESTEY AND CAEPET INDUSTEY 263 

usually woven in widths of about twenty-seven inches, i.e., 
the old Flemish ell and French aune. 

The tapestry industry is dispersed over the country, 
being located principally in Halifax, Glasgow, Bradford, 
Carlisle, and also being instituted as a "home industry" 
in Ireland and England on very successful lines. On 
the Continent the centres are Paris, Eoubaix, Berlin, 
Chemnitz, Crefeld and Vienna. In the United States, 
New York. 

The carpet industry is largely located at Halifax, 
Glasgow, and Kidderminster in this country. 

The materials consumed are silk (both net and spun), 
wool (chiefly English), mohair, hemp, jute, cotton and 
China grass. 

The mill organization is naturally very elaborate and 
expensive. Messrs. John Crossley & Sons, of Halifax, for 
example, have premises extending over many acres and 
employ 5,000 work-people. They produce Brussels, tapestry 
and Axminster carpets. The firm of Messrs. James 
Morton & Co., of Carlisle, is remarkable chiefly because it 
has organized an elaborate Irish home industry for the 
production of many articles yet unproducible mechanically. 

The methods of production, etc., so closely resemble 
the methods employed in the dress goods and stuffs 
industries that little further need be added. The designing 
room is, of course, pre-eminently important. The art of 
tapestry carpet designing, for example, is that of using the 
limitations of structure and colour as bases for design. 
Again, the mixing, printing, and fastening of the colours 
upon the threads which are to form the pile in the carpet 
necessarily claim most marked attention. 



264 TEXTILES 

Two branches, or rather sections, of the textile industry 
are not dealt with here, the hosiery industry and the 
ribbon, braid, and trimming industry. The hosiery 
industry has now attained to such dimensions and is so 
intimately associated with the stockinette frame and lace 
machine that it of necessity claims distinct treatment. 
The ribbon industry is so intimately connected with the 
bandolier, lace, and other narrow goods industry that it 
also is of sufficient importance to be considered as a 
distinct industry. 



CHAPTEE XV 



SILK THROWING AND SPINNING 



Silk manufacture has had the advantage during the 
last ten or twelve years of competent instruction in the 
technology of the raw material and its manipulation and 
weaving, together with its relationships to other textile 
fibres. The technical colleges of Manchester, Bradford, 
Leeds, and Macclesfield have made special arrangements 
and facilities for understanding the whole range of study 
from the production of the cocoon to the weaving of the 
fabric. 

In the scope of a single chapter it is impossible to 
attempt any detailed description of the various processes 
of rearing, reeling, throwing or spinning through which 
this interesting and beautiful fibre passes before it is fitted 
for the manufacturer, and we must therefore limit it to 
general characteristics, and especially as an important 
article of commerce, to the increase and improvement in 
character, with the causes which have led up to them. 

That there has been an expansion will be seen later on 
by the figures showing the export from the various silk- 
producing countries, and the amount consumed by each 
great centre of manufacture. As far as our own country 
is concerned there is a general impression that silk weaving 
has materially decreased, and the closing of throwing 




Fig. 58.— Silk Reeling, a.d. 1500. 




Fig. 59.— Silk Reeling, 1900. 
By permission of Messrs. Giov. Battaglio, Luino, Italy. 



SILK THROWING AND SPINNING 267 

mills and silk factories in Derby, Nottingham, Coventry, 
Macclesfield, and other towns gives colour to this con- 
clusion. But it must be remembered that great economic 
changes have taken place during the last thirty to forty 
years. London is no longer the port of debarcation for 
the Eastern silks of China and Japan, and consequently the 
ceatre of distribution. The East India Company has ceased 
to hold responsibility for the importation and sale of our 
East Indian colony. The shipping companies now dis- 
embark their silk freights at Genoa and Marseilles as well 
as London, and the Japanese send a large contingent 
of their production across the Pacific to the American 
continent. Then, again, the evolution of the power-loom 
and its adaptation for silk weaving has practically displaced 
the occupation of the old hand-loom weaver, and by its 
introduction a single operative will be producing four times 
the amount as in the former days by the older methods. 
A general desire for cheap fabrics within the purchasing 
power of the million has greatly stimulated the mixed 
goods trade, and the looms of Scotland, of Yorkshire, of 
Lancashire and other districts are now engaged in weaving 
this textile in combination with others, especially with 
mercerized cotton and wool. In spinning and throwing, by 
the introduction of better reeled silks, and the adoption of 
the faster running gravity spindle, the production has been 
nearly doubled, and consequently an equal weight is turned 
out with one half of the labour formerly employed. It is, of 
course, natural that those countries where the raw material 
is indigenous will endeavour to take a first place, or where, as 
in the case of America (a self-contained continent), a desire 
is manifest to retain the supply of its people in every 



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270 



TEXTILES 



department of industry in its own hands, which they 
now do by a heavy protective tariff. The following table 
of silk production and export of the various countries 
where sericulture is carried on shows clearly that the 
weight has been more than doubled during the last thirty 
years. These figures do not include the silk used by the 
natives of China, Japan or India, and we know that they 
retain a very large contingent of their reelings for native 
manufacture both for home consumption and export of 
fabrics. 

Table showing Silk Production and Export of the 
various Countries (in Bales of IOOlbs. each). 



During Years. 

Average per 

annum. 


From 
Europe. 


Levant. 


India. 


China. 


Canton. 


Japan. 


Totals. 
Average 

per 
annum. 




rN 


56,915 
67,520 
63,050 

56,715 

68,585 
77,900 
96,435 
90,250 


19,110 
] 7,666 
18,090 

23,200 
28,510 
43,300 
46,280 
45,070 


14,400 
17,560 
24,970 

41,860 
58,505 
72,375 
98,630 
120,440 




1870 to 1874 
1875 to 1879 
1880 to 1884 


105,250 

78,320 

109,400 


195,675 
181,066 
215,510 


1885 to 1889 
1890 to 1894 
1895 to 1899 
1900 to 1904 
1905 to 1907 


90,700 
93,580 
93,820 
93,525 
124,905 


14,670 
17,760 
29,700 
46,635 
53,080 


17,330 

5,775 
7,K.0 

6,050 
5,755 


244,475 
272,715 
324,195 
387,555 
439,500 



The above table requires some explanation. Up to the 
year 1884 statistics of the countries of Europe were 
grouped with those of the Levant and India, and it is 
therefore difficult to ascertain which country was best 
developing its resources. From that period up to the 
present time the yield in Italy, Austria, and Hungary 
grouped together has increased 50 per cent. The Levant 
and Central Asia has trebled its production. India appears 



SILK THEOWING AND SPINNING- 271 

to show a decline, owing partly to the withdrawal of 
the fostering care of the East India Company. From 
another table, which we append, it will be seen that India 
manufactures more silk than it exports, so that it is 
difficult to ascertain its full complement of production. 
The Chinese, doubtless, retain fully one-half of their out- 
turn for home consumption, and Japan probably one-third. 
This last-named together with the Cantonese, owing to their 
extended cultivation of the mulberry and their improved 
methods of reeling, account for the largest increase. It is 
well known that their manufacturing requirements have 
increased in like proportion. The following table (p. 272), 
shows the production and consumption of each country at 
the present period. 

The cause of this increased output is not attributable to 
a single department of its cultivation and manipulation. 
All along the line Western science has been brought to bear, 
resulting in improved methods of rearing, reeling, and 
spinning. In France alone the production, which in the 
year 1820 reached 1,000,000 lbs., trebled itself during the 
following decade, and between the years 1840 and 1855 
the estimated production was 4,500,000 lbs. ; but this 
excessive development brought in its train serious con- 
sequences. The large breeders brought millions of worms 
together in one room, an overcrowding which induced a 
serious disease, and nearly threatened the extinction of the 
species throughout the whole of Southern Europe, and 
more or less in China and Japan, but without such serious 
results in these last-named countries. 

This catastrophe, however, laid the foundation for greater 
care in the breeding, and consequently for the better results 



272 TEXTILE* 

Pboduction and Consumption of Eaw Silk. 



Production 
Averaged 1903/04 

of } 1904/05 
Seasons J 1905/06 



Consumption of 

same. Average of 

years 1902, 1903, 

1904. 



Europe : France 
Italy . 
Switzerland 
Spain . 
Austria 
Hungary . 
Russia and Caucasus 
Bulgaria, Servia, Eoumania 
Greece and Crete 
Salonica, Adrianople 
Germany . 
England 

America: United States . 

Asia: Brusa 

Syria . 

Persia (exportation) 
Turkestan 
China 

,, Canton 
Japan 
India 
Tonquin and Annam 

(exportation) . 

Africa : Egypt 
Morocco 
Algeria and Tunis 

Other Countries 

Bales of 100 lbs. 



12,760 
92,334 
990 
1,760 
3,608 
3,234 
8,932 
3,432 
1,386 
5,742 



12,078 

11,000 

5,566 

6,006 

89,606 

46,618 

111,364 

5,632 

220 



422,268 



95,194 

21,252 

35,090 

4,026 

17,072 

27,962 

374 

440 

660 

62,612 

15,59S 

134,816 

660 
2,420 



No Estimate. 
7,700 



4,400 
1,540 
1,430 

1,210 



434,456 



A. B. — Two reasons account for the seeming excess of consumption 
over production : 1 . The figures of production being based upon 
seasons, and that of consumption upon calendar years, both columns 
do not refer to exactly the same period. 2. Eor several years the 
Italian crop has been officially underestimated. 



SILK THROWING AND SPINNING 273 

of which we now reap the benefit. The whole world of 
sericulture will ever be indebted to M. Pasteur, who in the 
year 1865 was called to the rescue from what in France 
was looked upon as a national calamity. After two years of 
close study and experiment he succeeded in discovering 
and pointing out the cause of the malady and the means 
of -preventing it. In the first place, healthy seed was 
imported from Japan, the country which had least suffered, 
and so the practice of cross-breeding became universal, and 
amongst the best "graineurs" to-day great care is exercised 
in the selection of the finest cocoons from the various 
districts in order to establish new and healthy breeds of 
silkworms. The main remedy was effected by the practice 
of " cellular incubation," viz., the examination of the eggs 
under the microscope, in order to ascertain if tbe produc- 
tion of each moth had within it the source of infection for 
a future race. During the next ten years this method of 
inspection was adopted by every well-ordered establishment, 
in every country, with the exception of the Chinese, who 
still suffer from year to year by their antiquated methods 
both in quality and quantity of the seasons' yield. 

A book recently published by M'Laurent de L'Arbousset, 
of Alais, France, and translated from the French by 
Elizabeth Wardle, the talented daughter of the late 
Sir Thomas Wardle (President of the Silk Association of 
Great Britain and Ireland), reveals to us other causes of 
improvement than those of interbreeding and microscopical 
inspection, important as they are. The mulberry, the staple 
food of the Bombyx mori, is now cultivated under the most 
methodical and improved conditions, and calculated to 
afford the highest degree of nutrition. By careful selection 

t. T 



274 TEXTILES 

of healthy stock plants, grafting, pruning, and judicious 
gathering of the leaves, especially during the earlier 
growth, a more succulent and nourishing food is obtained 
and the trees are better able to resist the fungoid diseases 
to which they are liable. Magnaneries (rearing sheds) are 
more carefully warmed and ventilated, the silkworms are 
better spaced, and by cleanliness and mild fumigations of sul- 
phurous acid or formalin the silkworms are kept freer from 
the diseases to which they are liable, and consequently spin 
a more robust cocoon, better in quality and the thread of 
greater length. In marketing the cocoons they are classi- 
fied as to quality, and in stoving (with the object of killing 
the chrysalide) new and improved apparatus has been 
introduced. The peasants in country districts adopt very 
primitive means of effecting this. One method described 
by this writer is that of subjecting them to the baking 
process. After the bread has been withdrawn from the 
baker's oven, the bare arm is thrust into it, and, if the 
heat can be borne without scorching, the cocoons, placed 
in baskets, are then inserted and retained until the 
operator is satisfied that life no longer remains. Steaming, 
however, gives a much better quality of fibre, and in the 
absence of specially-constructed apparatus they are placed 
in baskets over a copper of boiling water, and after a 
complete desiccation spread out in the sun to dry 
thoroughly. 

By the adoption of the foregoing methods the net yield 
from one ounce of graine, or eggs, has during the last 
twenty-five or thirty years been trebled, and in many 
instances quadrupled. It is now calculated that from this 
incubation of healthy and carefully-selected seed, seventy 



SILK THROWING AND SPINNING 



275 



kilos of cocoons may be produced, 90 per cent, of which are 
of the first quality. Bat we pass on to note the stages by 
which the reeling has been brought up to its present 
standard of efficiency in the improvement of the reeled silk 
and the lowered cost of production. In the year 1820 a 




Fig. 60. — Croissure by the System Chambon. 

French inventor, Gensoul, of Bagnols-sur-Leze, introduced 
the process of heating the reeling basins by steam, which, 
by removing a separate oven for each basin and the driving 
of each reel separately by hand, enabled the workers to be 
placed nearer together on one table, and by one driving-wheel 
the whole line of reels are worked by the same motive power. 

t 2 



276 



TEXTILES 



In 1828 a further improvement was introduced by Chambon, 
of Alais, which established the universal use of the Crois- 
sure which improved the reeled threads by making them 
rounder and more compact and homogeneous. Unfortu- 
nately this apparatus gave rise to what is known in the 




Eig. 61. — Croissure by Tavalette. 

trade as "manages," or double threads running parallel 
together on the reel and needing separation in the winding 
and throwing of the silk for manufacture. This has been 
obviated by the use of the Tavalette croissure, each separate 
thread being crossed upon itself (with thirty to forty turns), 
and is carried singly by means of/small pulleys on to the 
reel. The waste material on the outside of the cocoon, 



SILK THROWING AND SPINNING 



277 



which had to be removed by the whisking of a brush in a 
separate basin, and by hand, is now effected by automatic 
machinery. The work of one reeler was under the older 
system confined to two sets of cocoons. (From four to six 
threads or cocoons are combined to make one thread of 




Fig. 62. — The Jette-bout, combining Five Cocoons in One Thread. 

raw silk.) Now, under the new conditions, the reeler can 
easily superintend in one enlarged basin from four to six 
sets of cocoons, in addition to which the reels can be driven 
faster. In spite of the mechanical improvements in the 
apparatus used, it is necessary that great care should be 
exercised in order to avoid those defects which would impair 



278 



TEXTILES 




Fig. 63. — Duvet. 




Fig. 64. — Bouchons or Slubs. 



SILK THROWING AND SPINNING 



279 



the quality or cause trouble in the weaving. A few of the 
imperfections to which bad reeling gives rise may be indi- 
cated. First, Duvet gives the appearance of short fibres 
thrown off from the main continuous thread. This was 
attributed formerly to the silkworm spinning an imperfect 
bave on the cocoon ; but while there may be variation in 
tkickness between the first and last end of the spun thread, 
there is no mechanical imperfection caused naturally. The 
microscope reveals to us the real cause, either frequent and 




FlG. 65.— Knots. 

imperfect joinings as the cocoons become attached to the 
main thread, or still more by an uneven temperature in the 
reeling basin (which should be kept at 140° to 160° Fahr.), 
thus causing the silk to unwind itself unevenly and cause 
small loops. Secondly, Foul or Stubs (bouchons) present 
a more aggravated form of the above-named defect, the 
layers of the thread on the cocoon coming off en masse. 
There are few productions actually free from this fault, and 
the native reelers of China silks are so careless that it is 
only by passing the thread through cleaners (steel blades 



280 TEXTILES 

closed so as to stop the bouchons) that their productions 
can be utilized. Thirdly, Knots are unavoidable, but by 
careful oversight they may be minimized, and under any 
circumstances be neatly made. Fourthly, Baves imperfectly 
joined together give the thread an open and soft appear- 




Fig. 66. — Baves imperfectly Joined. 

ance. They are mainly caused during a temporary 
stoppage of the reeling, some of the threads from the 
cocoon drying more quickly than others. Fifthly, Vrilles 
give the thread a creped appearance, and are produced by 
the breakage of one of the baves when it is necessary to 
reduce the number of the cocoons. 




Fig. 67.— Vrilles. 

Most of these faults may be discerned while the silk is 
in the raw or gum state. During the last decade a much 
graver imperfection (but not new by any means) has formed 
the subject of controversy amongst experts. It is known 
as silk louse, causing an appearance when discharged or 
dyed and wound on the bobbin of specks of dust. When 



SILK THROWING AND SPINNING 



281 



placed under a high power of the microscope these minute 
specks present the appearance of numberless fibrils indi- 
cating a rupture and division of the original have and brin 
of the silk. It has been variously attributed to (a) the use 
of disinfectants in the rearing sheds chemically disin- 




Fig. 68.— Silk-louse. 

tegrating the fibre ; (b) an imperfect croissure, the reeler 
failing to give the necessary number of turns of the thread 
upon itself ; (c) undue punishment in the process of 
boiling, dyeing, or lustreing, specially the latter. So far 
no satisfactory solution has been arrived at, and it is most 
probable that it may arise from a combination of causes. 



282 TEXTILES 

Certain it is that some classes of silk are more liable to it 
than others, and as the appearance is only spasmodic there 
may be certain seasons and countries where the conditions 
of rearing and reeling are unfavourable. 

In the production of a good weaving thread it is equally 
necessary that the throwster should take every precaution 
either to minimize by cleaning the reeling defects of the raw 
silk, or, by good machinery and careful oversight in his own 
processes, avoid the production of faults incidental to this 
particular process of manipulation. A brief resume of the 
work of the throwster may not be out of place. In dealing 
with the raw silk for throwing, the treatment should be 
varied according to quality. The filature silks of Italy, 
China, and Japan are fairly even in size, and the skeins are 
reeled in hanks suited for winding without separation, 
whereas those of China reeled by the natives come to us in 
mosses or hanks weighing nearly 1 lb., and require very care- 
fully splitting into smaller hanks. They are usually so uneven 
in the thickness of the thread that it is necessary to classify 
them, otherwise the union of a thick and thin thread 
produces in the two-folded tram or organzine a loopy or 
crinkled appearance, which is a serious fault and drawback 
to the after-processes in the manufacture. Where the silk 
in reeling has touched the arms of the reel a hard gum is 
formed, and requires carefully softening either by the 
immersion of that portion of the skein in a softening emulsion 
or by a complete washing of the bulk in a soap bath. The 
cost of winding varies according to the method of reeling. 
Those silks produced in well-equipped filatures or factories 
are as nearly perfect as possible, and one worker can 
superintend 80 to 100 spindles, the bobbin taking up 



SILK THROWING AND SPINNING 



283 



50 metres per minute, as against inferior native silks 20 to 
25 spindles, and the waste caused by these latter is much 
heavier. In the next process of cleaning equal care is 
required, so that all the bouchons or foul may be eliminated, 




Pig. G9.— The Eitson Spinning Mill. 

and where tied out a neat knot should be made and the ends 
cut off shortly. The process of doubling two or more threads 
together requires equal vigilance. Two ends of equal size 
should be run together, the tensions on each carefully 
adjusted, and each thread passed through an automatic 
faller or eye, so that one thread cannot pass on to the 




Fig. 70.— Spinner (new type). 



fSlLK THROWING AND SPINNING 



285 



bobbin singly. In spinning, doubling, and twisting marked 
improvements have been effected in late years by better and 
faster-running machinery. The Eitson spinning mill, 
introduced in 1830, with a separate cotton band for each 
spindle driven by a cylinder, was only capable of doing 




Fig. 71.— Throwing Mill, Twisting and Eeeling Combined. 

effective work at 3,000 to 4,000 revolutions of the spindle 
per minute. 

This has been superseded by machinery furnished with 
gravity spindles, which are successfully run at the rate of 
8,000 to 10,000 revolutions per minute. In addition to this 
advantage the machine only takes up two-thirds of the room 
of the older type. In some cases the final twist is given 



2S6 



TEXTILES 




SILK THKOWING AND SPINNING 287 

on the same type of machine and the doubled thread reeled 
on a separate reeling machine with automatic stop motion, 
so that each skein is of an equal length. The more 
modern and equally effective method is to twist and reel at 
the same time. A twisting frame built on similar lines to 
that of the spinning mill, but with reels instead of take-up 
bobbins can be driven at the rate of 6,500 revolutions per 
minute. The latest American machine provides for spin- 
ning, doubling, and twisting in one process, but so far it 
can only be adapted for the most perfectly reeled silks of 
Italy and Japan of 14 to 16 deniers in the thread. Finer 
reeled silks and those of a commoner description would 
suffer in quality, and little if any advantage in cost would 
be gained by the adoption of so compounding the processes. 
One of the greatest advantages of late years has been gained 
by the process of cross-reeling known as the Grant system, 
by which a length of 5,000 to 10,000 yards can be reeled in 
one skein. The silk is kept straighter in the dyeing process, 
and the winding is facilitated, and at one-half of the 
original cost as against the smaller hanks. 

As compared with other textiles made from short fibres, 
net silk has distinctive qualities which give to it a precedence 
over them. For instance, its natural brilliancy, trans- 
parency, and absorbent character enables the dyer to 
incorporate with it tannic acids or metallic salts, in some 
cases up to double its original weight, and increasing bulk 
up to 50 to 100 per cent., without in any way impairing its 
natural lustre, and at the same time so incorporating itself 
as part of the original thread that it is perfectly homo- 
geneous, and not, as in some cases, appearing as an accretion 
outside of the thread or fibre itself. The properties of 



288 TEXTILES 

elasticity and tenacity are also important factors, specially 
for weaving in the single thread without twist, as also 
those combinations where a strain is put upon the warp 
threads to produce certain effects. 

Careful assays are made in what is known as condition- 
ing houses to ensure to the buyer an article specially suited 
to his purpose. The absorbent quality admits of too great 
a percentage of moisture or water being incorporated with 
it when sold, in fact, up to 5 or 6 per cent, over the normal, 
without in any way appearing fraudulent. To arrive at a 
fair condition 500 or 600 grammes are carefully weighed, 
and afterwards enclosed for fifteen or twenty minutes in a 
specially constructed apparatus or oven, superheated up to 
about 300° Fahr. It is then weighed and 11 per cent, 
added to the absolute dry weight, by which percentage 
it is supposed that we arrive at the proper normal condition. 
A further test is added by decreusage or boiling off the gum 
in order to ascertain that no undue weighting of fatty or 
other matter has been added to increase the weight of silk 
beyond its original condition in the raw state. The tavelle, 
or winding test, is only applied in the case of raw silk as 
a guide to the silk throwster. Five hanks are placed on 
the winding swifts and run for two hours at the rate of 
50 metres per minute on the take-up bobbin. The number 
of breakages during the time are carefully tabulated, and 
the resultant divided into 800 gives the number of spindles 
one worker can superintend. Tests for elasticity and tenacity 
are conducted on a special apparatus called the serimetre. 
The normal amount of elasticity indicating a silk of good 
quality should not be less than 25 per cent, of its length. 
Tenacity or amount of strain before breakage is considered 



SILK THROWING AND SPINNING 289 

to be satisfactory if the weight borne in grammes is four 
times the denier or size of the thread. For example, a 
10-12 denier raw silk should bear a strain of 40-50 
grammes in weight (equivalent to about 1 oz. avoirdupois), 
and so on in proportion with all other sizes. 

Assays for size or count are made by reeling 20 skeins 
of a given length, weighing each separately, which will 
indicate the range or variation, and thus showing the com- 
parative evenness of the thread, or otherwise, and by 
striking a mean average of the totals the size or count will 
be ascertained, by which calculations may be built up for 
the manufacturer. An international metric count has been 
established in all silk centres as approved by the Paris 
Convention of 1900. This is based upon the metre for 
length, and the gramme for the weight — e.g., No. 100, 
means that 100 metres will weigh one gramme. What is 
known as the legal count for raw and thrown silks is based 
upon the number of half decigrammes per 450 metres, and 
corresponds very nearly to the former method of weighing 
by the denier (33J deniers = 1 dram avoirdupois) per 476 
metres. The nomenclature for counts and sizes for various 
textiles is so varied that the student or manufacturer 
should furnish himself with the small handbook of " Inter- 
national Yarn Tables," compiled and arranged by McLennan, 
Blair & Co., of Glasgow, an absolutely indispensable office 
guide. 

The question of quality of the silks of various countries 
is equally varied, according to climate, soil, rearing, reel- 
ing, etc., and can only be assessed either by actual practice 
or a long experience in their manipulation. A few details 
respecting them may not be uninteresting. 

t. u 



290 



TEXTILES 




SILK THROWING AND SPINNING 291 

French and Italian. — These are mostly yellow gum silk, 
in fact the yellow breeds of cocoons are indigenous, and 
the eggs of the white races of the far East after a few 
years' breeding revert to the yellow silks peculiar to 
these countries. Great care is exercised in the reeling 
to produce a well-formed and even thread. They are 
usually reeled in sizes of 9-11 to 12-14 deniers, according 
to the number of cocoons combined in one thread, and 
are adapted for either organzine (warp) or tram (weft) 
for the production of broad goods, for which they are 
admirably suited. The loss in boiling is 25 per cent., and 
great care is required in discharging the gum so as to 
prevent the appearance of duvet or silk-louse, to which they 
are somewhat liable. Some of these silks are reeled from 
20 to 30 deniers in size for weaving in the gum with the 
single thread, and specially for the production of the net- 
work in silk lace. The productions of Spain, Austria, and 
Hungary may be classed with those of France and Italy. 

Syrian, Brutian, Bulgarian, and Persian Silks are also care- 
fully reeled, and in similar sizes to those before named. 
They are, however, of a softer nature, and not so well fitted 
for organzines as for tram silks. The coarser sizes of 
Brutian silks are largely used for weaving in the gum (single 
thread), and the finer sizes of Brutian and Persian silks 
doubled two or three fold make an excellent weft when 
twisted heavily for the manufacture of crepe de chine. 

Kashmir Silk is comparatively a new production. In 
1897 it was non-existent. The Durbar of that province is 
indebted to the late Sir Thomas Wardle for its initiation and 
development. In the year 1900 the annual production was 
57,921 lbs., and by the year 1906 it had increased to 

u 2 



SILK THKOWING AND SPINNING 293 

190,736 lbs., and year by year promises a like progressive 
increase ; the silkworm eggs are distributed to 15,784 
village householders, and, reckoning an average of four 
persons to each family, it will be seen that some 60,000 to 
70,000 persons, young and old, are engaged in this industry, 
which has proved very remunerative to all concerned. 
Factories have been established for the reeling, in addition 
to which some 200 hand-looms have been sent out from 
this country for the weaving of fabrics. The seed is 
imported annually from Europe, the race is univoltine, 
viz., one crop per annum, and the silk is therefore much 
superior to the ordinary silks of India from the eastern 
provinces. It is mostly reeled in 10-12 denier size, and 
finds a ready market in Lyons for throwing into weft silks, 
for which it is specially adapted. 

Bengal Silks for export are somewhat limited. Although 
there are three crops or bunds per annum, the supply 
does not exceed 4,000 to 5,000 bales per annum. The 
filatures are in the hands of about four or five (European) 
companies, who give their productions names according 
to the districts from which the cocoons are obtained. 
Those known as Surdah, Eangamatty, Gonatea, Banjetty, 
Cossimbuzar, and Rose filature are among the best, and 
from these second and third selections are made under 
different titles too numerous to include in these notes. 
Some of the native reels are worthy of inclusion as silks 
of good quality, but the great bulk are of an inferior order and 
used by the native manufacturers for the fabric known as 
Pongees. The silks of the Bengal province being multi- 
voltine, the bave is finer, and the cocoon only yields two- 
thirds the length of the univoltine species. The thread is 



294 TEXTILES 

softer and more liable to duvet, but yields a bright thread 
after dyeing, and is especially suited for weft, particularly 
when dyed black. The sizes run from 10-14 to 16-20 deniers. 

Cantons. — These also are the produce of multivoltines. 
The Cantonese produce six crops annually. The silk is 
similar in quality to the Bengals, but as the colour is a 
creamy white it lends itself to the lighter shades of colour- 
ing, and when well reeled is adapted particularly for crepe 
de chine weft. Formerly this silk was all in the hands of 
native reelers, and very coarse and uneven. European 
enterprise and capital has established numberless filatures, 
and both for size and winding properties they compete 
favourably with the filature silks of other countries. There 
are still some native-reeled silks, but even these are of much 
better type than the exportations of, say, fifteen to twenty 
years ago. The worst fault of these native reels is that 
of manages or double threads. 

Japans have vastly improved during the last ten years, 
both for colour, reeling, and general characteristics. They 
are good winding, fairly even, firm in the thread, and 
capable of being dyed and weighted (especially in colours) 
to double their original weight when boiled off. The sizes 
run from 9-10 to 13-15 deniers in the single thread, 
so that they can be utilized for fine organzine and tram 
silks. The American manufacturers use these silks more 
extensively than those of any other province or country. 
One special characteristic of Japan silks is the minimum 
percentage of gum. The loss in boiling does not exceed 
18 to 20 per cent., as against European silks and those of 
India and Canton 25 per cent. / 

Tussah Silks are the produce of the family of Saturnides. 



SILK THROWING AND SPINNING 295 

In India the Antherea Mylitta produces a bave of at 
least 8 deniers in size, and in China the Antherea Pernyi 
produces a bave of about 5 deniers, as against the bave 
of the Bombyx Mori silks of 2 to 2J deniers. Consequently, 
the original thread is natter and more uneven, and a less 
number of cocoons can be combined to produce a given 
size* The quality is very varied. Some of the filature-reeled 
silks of northern China (Chefoo district) are fairly work- 
able, but unfortunately they vary from year to year, and 
many chops or trade-marks in favour a few years ago 
are now little better than those of the native reelers. The 
filatures usually run 35-40 deniers in size, and those 
of the natives 50-60 deniers. A large proportion of the 
silk in China in the province of Shantung is reserved 
for the native manufacture of fabrics bearing that name. 

China Silks cover so wide an area, and are so varied in 
qualities and sizes, that only a few general details can be 
included here, so we must confine our remarks to a general 
classification. (1) Filature silks produced in factories in 
the neighbourhood or within a fifty-mile radius of Shanghai 
are reeled under European supervision and take a first 
place in the world's productions. They are white in colour, 
even in size, of a firm texture, and possess great tensile 
strength, so that for some purposes they are preferred to 
any other silks, and consequently command a high price. 
10,000 to 15,000 bales are now annually produced and 
exported, principally for Europe and America. 

(2) lie Reels. — These silks are very similar to the native- 
reeled silks both as to size and quality. In fact, they are 
the native-reeled silks, wound by Chinese women, care- 
fully cleared of some of the bouchons or foul by passing 



296 TEXTILES 

through the fingers, and by re-reeling a better winding is 
obtained. The finer portions of the silk are selected for 
this purpose, so that part of the cost of manipulation 
in silk-throwing is saved, a great desideratum where the 
cost of manual labour is comparatively at a premium. 
During the last 10 to 15 years the export of these silks has 
been on the increase. During the season 1906-1907 they 
reached nearly 13,000 bales, nearly equal in quantity to 
those of the ordinary white native-reeled silks. 

(3) Native Reels. — These include Tsatlees, Kahings, 
Hainins, Hangchows in the white silks, and the yellow silks 
of the Seychuen districts. Owing to the selection of the 
best and finest hanks for re-reeling purposes the white silks 
of China have greatly deteriorated. Naturally, the cocoon 
of the white China species is second to none ; in fact, if it 
could be produced under the same scientific conditions as 
those of Europe and Japan, for strength, lustre, etc., it 
would be the very best. In the districts where the rearing 
takes place there is no microscopic selection of healthy 
graine or eggs, and consequently liable to the ravages of 
diseases to which the silkworm is subject. It is to be 
hoped that Western education and contact with their near 
neighbours the Japanese will so leaven the commercial 
spirit of this country that ultimate improvement may 
be the result. The yellow silks especially are of little 
utility for the English or Continental markets beyond 
that of coarse fabrics, or heavy sewings, or embroidery 
threads. 

So far we have only dealt with the silk in the net or raw 
state, and its manipulation in the processes of reeling and 
throwing, but in these stages it is estimated that an equal 



SILK THKOWING AND SPINNING 297 

quantity of waste is produced, and which is now utilized 
for silk spinning. In the rearing of the cocoons the blaze 
or fine silken fibres thrown off by the silkworm on the 
bush as a nest on which to form its cocoon is collected, and 
China alone has exported 240,000 lbs. annually of this 
product. Imperfect and pierced cocoons which cannot be 
used for reeling form another source of supply. In the 
reeling process, before a perfect thread can be obtained for 
continuous running the outside threads are brushed off by 
an automatic process, and at least 25 to 30 per cent, of the 
total weight of the cocoon goes into the waste basket. To 
this may be added the waste made by the silk throwster in 
the processes of winding, cleaning, and doubling. Doubtless 
some portions of these waste materials were used by the an- 
cients for all time, but under earlier conditions were combed 
and spun by hand. In the regulations of the thirteenth 
and fourteenth centuries in France mention is made of 
galette flourin and filoselle, productions of hand spinning, 
and in 1815 a society was formed in Paris for the encourage- 
ment of the industry on a larger scale and by mechanical 
means. At this period the waste was cut into short lengths 
and spun on lines similar to those then existent in the cotton 
spinning, but in 1830 special machinery was introduced for 
dealing with longer fibres, on the basis of the present 
system of the silk-spinning industry of to-day. To a 
paper read by Joseph Boden, Esq., silk merchant, of 
Manchester, before the Silk Association in February, 1905, 
we are indebted for information as to the rise and progress 
of this branch of textile industry in our own country. It 
appears that the first spinning mill established in England 
was in the year 1792, at Galgate, near Lancaster, but a 



298 TEXTILES 

quarter of a century elapsed before this example was 
followed to any extent by other firms. 

On the Continent operations were commenced in Bale 
about the year 1822, and from that period both at home and 
abroad it has made considerable progress and development. 
It may be interesting to know that an approximate estimate 
of the spun-silk spindles in the whole world may be put at 
about 660,000, spread over France, Switzerland, Italy, 
Germany, Austria, England, America, China, Japan, and 
India. The production may be taken roughly at 15,500,000 
lbs. per annum, of which about 11,000,000 are produced 
on the Continent, 3,000,000 in England, and the remainder 
in other countries. 

The predominance gained by the Continent may be 
partly accounted for by the cheaper labour employed, and 
an abundant water supply, so necessary for the purpose of 
schapping, and also more favourable treatment by the 
absence of restrictive factory regulations. By the method 
of schapping, in which a portion of the gum is retained, 
the processes are somewhat cheapened, a larger yield 
is obtained, and for some purposes, specially where 
required for black dyeing, the yarn has a wider scope 
of utility for the manufacturer. The gum is partially 
removed by the process of maceration and fermentation 
or by chemical means. The English spinners succeed 
in spinning brighter and whiter yarns which, although 
higher in price, command a sale for purposes for which 
the Continental yarns are less suited, specially where 
brilliancy and clearness of colouring is desired for delicate 
tintings and for whites. The methods employed for schap- 
ping, for long spinning, and for what is known as short- 



SILK THROWING AND SPINNING 



299 



spuns involve different treatment and special machinery, 
the details of which are so varied that a special chapter 
would be necessary to describe them even in the most 
general outline. My purpose has been to show the evolu- 
tion of the silk industry from the smallest and crudest 
beginnings up to its present conditions of expansion and 
improvement. 

By permission of Messrs. Sulzer, Rudolph & Co., of 
Zurich, silk merchants, we append a complete classification 
of the Chinese white silks and those of Tussah filatures ; 
also a classification of Tussah native reels by Messrs. 
Puthod. 



CLASSIFICATIONS. 
Steam Filatukes. 



Marks Classic. 



Best Chops. 



Ewo . 

Sinchong: Factory 
Soylun : Anchor 
Jinchons:: Crown 



best 1, 2 

Extra 1, 2 

Extra 1, 2, 3 

Extra 1, 2 



Good Chops. 



Lunwha : Double Dragon 
Denegri : Rose 
Chuezen : Diamond 
Jeaykhong : Sans Pareil . 
Yang : Rayon d'or . 



1, 2, 3 

Extra 1, 2 

Extra 1, 2 

1, 2, 3 

1, 2, 3 



300 



TEXTILES 



Steam Filatures — continued. 



Good Marks A. 



Soyzun : Eagle .... 


Extra 


1. 


2. 


3 


Yahwo : Soleil 




Extra 


1. 


2 




Chuntsiang : Elying Lizards 






1. 


2. 


3 


Yungtai : Double Gold Deer 






1. 


2. 


3 


Yatchong : Gold Watch . 




Extra 


1. 


2 




Yahlung : Trois Etoiles . 






1. 


2. 


3 


Dahlun : Stork 






1. 


2. 


3 


Yuezung : Gold Elephant 






1. 


2. 


3 


Yuenlung: Dragon. 






1. 


2. 


3 


Keechong : Flag 






1. 


2. 


3 


Yuenchong : Star and Dragon 






1. 


2. 


3 


Hunkee : Tiger 






1. 


2. 


3 


Dong Yah Dzang . 




Extra 


1. 


2 




Shingtze : Lion 






1. 


2. 


3 


Tsunwo : Mulberry Tree and Web . 




1. 


2. 


3 


Ohingwha: Worm, Leaf and Cocoons 




1. 


2. 


3 


Poa Woo : Lighthouse 




1. 


2. 


3 


Yue Lun : Tramcar . 






1. 


2. 


3 


Sooking: Centaur . 






1. 


2. 


3 


Lungwha : Single Dragon 






1. 


2. 


3 


Hahiho : Two Gods . 






1. 


2. 


3 


Sung Mu : Medaille 






1. 


2. 


3 


Tschenglung : Flying Tiger 




Extra 


1. 


2 




Nee Chong : Bell 




Extra 


1. 


2 




Kinglung : Excelsior 






1. 


2. 


3 


Soylum : Gold Star .... 




1. 


2. 


3 



Good Marks B. 



Yungtah : Gold Globe 

Yue Chong : Snow Hill and Pagoda 

Lun Chong : Flying Horse 

Jeaykhong : Black Lion . 

Soyzun : Cock . 

Sooking : Woman and Loom 

Darkin : Double Phoenix 

Zun chong : Double Cocks 

Whafong : Two Eiding Josses 

Wooshing : Sun 

Tsunchong : Dovible Anchor 

Soochow : Double Gold Pagoda 

Keechong : Star and Pagoda 

Yae Kih : Joss and Unicorn 



1. 2. 3 

1. 2. 3 
Extra 1. 2 

1. 2. 3 

1. 2. 3 

1 

1 
Extra 1 

1 



2. 

2. 

2 

2. 

1. 2. 



1. 2. 



SILK THROWING AND SPINNING 
Steam Filatures — continued. 



Marks Current A. 



301 



Dong Yah Chang : Double Lions 
Chiankee : Double Tiger . 
Jinchong : Eed Star 
Kinglun : Railway and Train . 
Young Lee : Three Sheep 



2. 3 

2. 3 
2. 3 



Marks Current B 



Chang Siring : Five Tigers 
Wayuen : Steamboat 
Tsuncheong : Gold Star . 
Sung Tai : Red Cross 
Kinglun : Double Gold Horse 
Yung Tai : Moon and Rabbit 



1. 
1. 
1. 

1. 

Extra 1. 

1. 



Hupeh : Imperial Dragon 1. 

Shantung : Gold Flying Bear 1. 



Shanghai Ee-reels for New York. 

Best Chops. 



( Gold Dragon 
( Gold Pagoda 



Extra 1. 2 

1. 2. 3 



Value 10/15 Taels less 


than 


Gold Dragon. 


( Dragon Flag 
| Wild Man . 










Extra 1. 2 
Extra 1. 2 


( Stars and Stripes 
( Red Indian . 










1. 2. 3 










1. 2. 3 


( Solstice 

\ Gold Globe . 










A. B. C. 










A. B. C. 


( Lion and Scale 










1. 2. 3 


\ Sheep and Flag 










1. 2. 3 


( Gold Dollar . 
\ Fountain 










Extra 1. 2 










Extra 1. 2 


( Blue Dragon 
( Flying Horse 










Extra 1. 2 










Extra 1. 2 



30'2 



TEXTILES 



Shanghai Ke-reels for New York — continued. 

Value 10/15 Taels loss than Gold Dragon— continued. 



| Bed Almond Flower 


Extra 1. 2 




i( Green Almond Flower . 
( Five Lions 




Extra 1. 1 






Extra 1. i 




( Leopard 




Extra 1. '. 




| Old Man 




1. 1 


. 3 


\ Two Men 




1. 1 


!. 3 


i Ironclad 

( Torpedo Boat 




Extra 1. 1 






1. 1 


!. 3 


I Gold Double Eagle 




Extra 1. : 


» 


. j Silver Double Eagle 




Extra 1 . 1 


» 


| Gold Motor Car " . 




Extra 1. '. 




\ Silver Motor Car . 




Extra 1 . 1 




| Gold Peacock 




Extra 1. 1 


» 


\ Silver Peacock 




Extra 1. 1 


» 


1 Gold 11 (Mark) . 




1. 1 


>. 3 


| Silver H (Mark) . 




1. 5 


>. 3 


| Cloud Lion . 




l. : 


>. 3 


[ Flying Stork 




l. i 


>. 3 


i Gold Flying Dragon 




Extra 1. '. 


> 


\ Silver Flying Dragon 




Extra 1. : 


> 


1 Gold Flying Kite '. 




Extra 1. 1 


> 


\ Silver Flying Kite 




Extra 1. 1 


> 


( Shield and Flags . 




Extra 1. 1 


> 


\ Arrows and Bow . 




Extra 1. ! 


» 


i Three Gold Josses 




Extra 1. ! 


> 


\ Three Silver Josses 




Extra 1. \ 


> 


15/20 Taels less than Gold Dragon. 


(Galley 


1. 


2. 3 


( Dragon Boat . 




1. 


2. 3 


Cloud and Dragon 




Extra 1. : 


> 


i Plying Eagle 




1. 


2. 3 


(Horse . 




1. 


2. 3 


j Gold Zebra . 

\ Silver Zebra . 




Extra 1. : 


> 




Extra 1. i 


> 


( Gold Biding Horse 




1. 


2. 3 


( Silver Biding Horse 




1. 


2. 3 


1 Gold Sycee and Boy 




Extra 1. • 


> 


\ Silver Syoee and Boy 




Extra 1. ! 


> 


i Hold Double Swallow 




1. 


2. 3 


\ Silver Double Swallow 




1. 


2. 3 


( Gold Hand . 


/. 


Extra 1. : 


> 


1 Silver Hand . 




Extra 1. : 


> 



SILK THROWING AND SPINNING 303 

Shanghai Re-reels for New York — continued. 

'J5/30 Taels loss than Gold Dragon. 



Crown 

Woman and Loom 
[Bed Mark) Sun E Tah 
-Gold Winding Mill . 

Tiger 

Gold Phoenix 



1. 2. :5 

l. 2. :; 

A. 15. 0. 

Extra 1. 2 
( (gold) (silver) (black) 

' Extra 1. 2 

1. 2. :j 



IIO/IL'O Taels less than Gold Dragon. 



Columbia ...... 




. 2. ;} 


Black Lion 








. 2. :i 


Wild Dragon . 








. 2. :i 


Small Buffalo 








. 2. ■'} 


Three Gold Foxes 








. 2. :i 


Woman and Loom (Tarkong) 






. 2. :j 


,, ,, ,, (Yuenlee) 






2 


Three Arrows . 






. 2. :j 


Gold Kangaroo 






Extra 1 


2 


Bed Peacock 






Extra 1 


2 


Black Peony 








. 2. :j 


Carriage . 






Extra 1 


2 


Gold Eagle and Skein 








. 2. .'} 


Medal 








. 2. :i 


Cold Stork 








. 2. ;; 


Blue Zebra 






Extra 1 


2 


( lold Buffalo 








. 2. ;3 


Three Men 








. 2. a 


Oregon 






Extra 1 


2 


Black Double Guns . 








. 2. 3 


Black Hand 






Extra 1 


2 


Red Double Swallow 








. 2. :j 


Blue Mark (Sun E Tab) 








L B. C. 


Bed Elephant . 








. 2. 3 


Blue Stork 






Extra 1 


. 2 


Silver Double Babbit 








. 2. 3 


( i ( ild Peony 








. 2 



304 



TEXTILES 



Shanghai Be-reels for New York — continued. 

120/130 Taels less than Gold Dragon. 



Bed Biding Horse .... 

Bell 

Double Fish 




Extra 


1. 
1. 
1. 


2_ 
2, 
2 


3 
3 


10/15 Taels less than Columbia. 


Yellow Lion ..... 

Gold Cash 

Bed Stork ...... 

Gold Tiger 

Silver Stork ..... 




Extra 


1. 

1. 

1. 

1 

1. 


2. 
2 
2 

2, 


3 
3 


(Taels 20.— Dearer than 

Tsatlee Filature cross S. S. S. Mars) 

Mars S. S. S 

Blue Biding Horse .... 






1. 
1. 


2 
2. 


3 


Haining improved Re-reels. 


( Shield and Flags .... 
( Arrows and Bow .... 
Green Flying Stork 




Extra 
Extra 


1. 
1. 
1. 


2 
2 
2. 


3 



Haining Filatures Cross-reeled for New York. 



Best Chops. 



Blue Dragon 




Extra 1. 





Fighting Cook . 




A. 


B. 0. 


Gold Butterfly . 




1. 


2. 3 


Watermark 




1. 


2. 3 


Balloon 


X 


Extra 1. 


2 



SILK THROWING AND SPINNING 305 

Haining Filatures Cross-reeled for New York — contd. 

Good Chops. 



- Flying Horse ..... 


Extra 1. 


2 




Cock and Centipede . 
Butterfly and Almond Flower 




1. 
1. 


2. 
2. 


3 
3 


^Blue Lion .... 




1. 


2. 


3 


Gold Flying Dragon . 




Extra 1. 


2. 


3 


Middling Chops. 


Pegasus 


Extra 1. 


2. 


3 


Buffalo . 






Extra A. 


B.' 


C. 


Black Horse 






Extra 1. 


2. 


3 


Bicycle 
Grasshopper 






Extra 1. 
Extra A. 


2. 
B." 


3 

C. 


Hankonshing 






Extra 1. 


2. 


3 


Mountain and Pagoda 






1. 


2, 


3 


Gold Double Babbit . 






Extra 1. 


2 




Bed Pagoda 






Extra 1. 


2 




Gold Lion 






Extra 1 . 


2 




Fisherman 






Extra 1. 


2 




Gold Dollar 






A. 


B. 


C. 


Inferior Chops. 


Double Fish 


Extra 1. 


2 




Small Buffalo 






Extra 1. 


2 




Eagle and Skein 






Extra 1. 


2 




Gold Mars (Chuntah) 
Mars (Sze She Shing) 






Extra 1. 
Extra 1. 


2 
2 




„ (SawEEee) . 






Extra 1. 


2 




,, (Kunchee) 
Cupid .... 
Green Flying Horse . 






Extra 1. 
1. 
1. 


2 
2 

2 




Shanghai Bund 






1. 


2 




Double Birds 






1. 


2 





306 TEXTILES 

Tsatlee Filatures Cross-reeled for New York. 

Best Chops. 



Blue Dragon ..... 


Extra 1. 2 




Blue Monster . 


Extra 1. 2 




Eighting Cock ..... 


A. B. C. 




Gold Butterfly 


1. 2. 3 




Old Man . 


Extra 1. 2 




Stork and Cloud .... 


Extra 1. 2 




Balloon ...... 


Extra 1. 2. 3 





Good Quality. 



Elying Horse 

Bace Horse 

Cock and Centipede . 

Butterfly and Almond Flower 

Double Men 

Blue Lion .... 

Gold Elying Dragon 

Atlas 

Plough .... 
Gold Cock .... 
Gold Btitterfly (Cat and Bee) 



Extra 1. 2 

Extra 1. 2 

1. 2 

1. 2 

1. 2 



3 
3 
3 

1. 2. 3 

Extra 1. 2. 3 

Extra 1. 2. 3 

1. 2. 3 

1. 2. 3 

Extra 1. 2. 3 



Medium Quality. 



Pegasus ...... 


Extra 1. 2. 3 


Buffalo .... 






Extra A. B. C. 


Black Horse 






Extra 1. 2. 3 


Bed Pagoda 






Extra 1. 2. 3 


Bicycle .... 






Extra 1. 2. 3 


Grasshopper 






Extra A. B. C. 


Cloud and Bridge 






Extra 1. 2. 3 


Blue Phoenix (Sun E Tab.) 






Extra 1. 2 


Blue Mark (Sun E Tab.) . 






A. B. C. 


Bed Eagle 


/ 




Extra 1. 2. 3 



SILK THROWING AND SPINNING 307 

TsATLEE FlLATUKES CROSS-REELED FOR New YORK — COlltd. 

Value 5/10 Tales less than Pegasus Extra. 



Green Pine and Stork 


Extra 1. 


2. 


3 


Gold Goat 


Extra 1. 


2. 


3 


Double Cock 


Extra A. 


B. 


C. 


Monkey and Bee .... 


Extra 1. 


2 




Zee May Zee ..... 


1. 


2. 


3 


Gold Lion (Yao-ta-zung) . 


Extra 1. 


2. 


3 



15/20 less than Pegasus Extra. 



Worm and Leaf 
White Horse 
Sun and Cloud . 
Gold Double Eabbit 



1. 2 



Extra 1. 
Extra 1. 
Extra 1. 



Quality Inferior. 



Double Fish 


Extra 1. 


2 


Gold Dragon 






1. 


2 


Gold Buffalo 






Extra 1. 


2 


Small Buffalo 






Extra 1. 


2 


Black Tiger 






Extra 1. 


2 


Eagle and Skein 




Extra 1. 


2 


Gold Mars (Chuntah) 




Extra 1. 


2 


Gold Mars (Pee Va May) . 




1. 


2 


Gold Dollar 




A. 


B. C. 


Oregon 






Extra 1. 


2 


Gold Unicorn 






Extra 1. 


2 


Black Unicorn 






Extra 1. 


2 


Mars S. S. S. 






Extra 1. 


2 


Mars Tokong 






Extra 1. 


2 


Mars S. Y. K. 






Extra 1. 


2 


Double Birds 






1. 


2 


Mercury 






Extra 1. 


2 


Tower 






A. 


B. C. 


Fan . 






1. 


2. 3 


Gold Pony 






Extra 1. 


2 


Gold Clock 






1. 


2 


Gold Lion (Taikee) . 




1. 


2 


Blue Phoenix (Yao-ta-zung) 




1. 


2 


Mars (Kungkee) 




1. 


2 


Steamboat . 






Extra 1. 


2 



x 2 



308 



TEXTILES 



Tsatlee Filatures Cross-reeled for New York — contd. 

Quality lnl'orim' <vnti lined. 



Genel 
Blue Eagle 
Elag Keeohong 
I iooomoti\ e 



Tsatlees Filatures (Ordinary), 

Host Chop, 



Crown 



Good Quality, 



Buffalo 
Pegasus 
Black Horse 
Red Eagle 
Mountain and 1 
Blue Pheasant 
Grasshopper 
Red Dragon 
Red Pagoda 
Bioyole 
Blue 1 ion . 
Black Lion 



mod 



Kxti 





B. 


C, 


D 




.> 


.'!. 


i 




•> 


.'>. 


4 




2 


s. 


4 




•> 


;;. 


4 




•> 


o 






B. 


C. 


D 




o_ 


3. 


i 




2 


;i. 


4 




.i 


.'>. 


4 




.> 


3. 


1 




B. 


0. 


D. 



Medium Quality. 



Gold Plying Eagle .... 


1 9 


3, 


4 


Gold Stork 








1 9 


3. 


4 


Gold Goat 








1 2 


3, 


4 


Blue Goat 








1 2 


3 




Double Took 








A. B. 


U. 


D, 


Green Pine and stork 








1 %> 


3, 


4 


Black Eagle 








1 2 


<> 




White Horse 








I 2 


3 




Gold Mandarin Duck 








I 2 


3, 


4 


Yellow Tiger 








i •> 


3, 


4 


Triton 








A. B. 


0. 




Fan .... 








1 2 


;; 




Cold Eagle 








1 2 


>> 





SlLK* THROWING AND SPINNING 



:}<)<) 



Tsatlees Filatures (Ordinary) — continued. 

Inferior Quality. 



Small Buffalo 
Double Fish 
S. S. S. Mars 
S. E. K. Mars 
Gold Dollar 
•Cupid 

Black Unicorn 
Evergreen 
Blue Phoonix (Yao ta Zung) 
( J did Phoenix 
Shanghai Bund 
Pee Va May Gold Mar 
Ohuntah Gold Mars 
Mercury . 
Eagle and Skeins 
Red Stork 
Gold Unicorn 
Gold Flying Tiger 
Flag . . . 
Double Birds 
Kunchee Mars . 
Bhie Eagle 
Genet 
Steamboat 
Gold Lion 
Star and Cloud . 



Extra 



A 



Extra 



Haining Filatures (Ordinary). 

Best Chop. 



Crown 



Extra 1. 2. 



Good Quality. 



Han Kon Shing .... 


Extra 1. 


2 


3. 


4 


Mountain and Pagoda 


Extra 1. 


2 


3. 


4 


Gold Pheasant ..... 


A. 


B. 


0. 


D. 


Grasshopper ..... 


A. 


B. 


C. 


D. 


Pegasus 


Extra 1. 


2. 


3. 


4 



310 



TEXTILES 



Haining Filatures (Ordinary) — continued. 



Good Quality — continued. 



Bicycle ...... 


1. 


2. 


3 


Black Horse 








Extra 1. 


9 


3. 4 


Bed Dragon 








1. 


2. 


3. 4 


Gold Flying Eagle . 








1. 


2. 


3. 4 


Buffalo 








Extra A. 


B. 


C. D. 


Bed Pagoda 








Extra 1. 


2. 


3. 4 


Fisherman 








Extra 1. 


9 


3. 4 


Kangaroo 








Extra 1. 


2. 


3 


Black Lion 








1. 


2. 


3. 4 


Bed Peony 








1. 


2. 


3 


Gold Double Babbits 








1. 


2. 


3 


Sun and Phoenix 








Extra 1. 


2. 


3 


Gold Mandarin Duck 








1. 


2. 


3. 4 


"White Horse 








Extra 1. 


2. 


3. 4 



Inferior Quality. 



S. S. S. Mars . 
Pee Va May Gold Mars 
Evergreen . 
Green Lion 
Kunchee Mars . 
Star and Cloud . 



Haining Books. 





Best Chops. 


Good Chops. 


Extra 


Mountain and Pagoda. 


Sun and Phcenix. 




Hankonshing. 


Fisherman. 




Pegasus. 






Grasshopper. 




1 


Mountain and Pagoda. 


Sun and Phoenix. 




Hankonshing. 


Fisherman. 




Pegasus. 


Gold Mandarin Duck. 




Grasshopper. 






Gold Double Babbit, 






Double Pagoda. 






Black Lion. y 






Gold Flying Eagle. 





SILK THROWING AND SPINNING 



311 



Haining Books — continued. 





Best Chops. 


Good Chops. 


2 


Mountain and Pagoda. 


Sun and Phoenix. 




Hankonshing. 


Fisherman. 




Pegasus. 


Gold Mandarin Duck. 




Grasshopper. 

Gold Double Rabbit 






Double Pagoda. 

Black Lion. 

Gold Flying Eagle. 




3 


Mountain and Pagoda. 


Sun and Phoenix. 




Hankonshing. 


Fisherman. 




Pegasus. 


Gold Mandarin Duck. 




Grasshopper. 

Gold Double Rabbit. 






Double Pagoda. 






Black Lion. 






Gold Flying Eagle. 




4 


Mountain and Pagoda. 


Fisherman. 




Hankonshing. 


Gold Mandarin Duck. 




Pegasus. 






Grasshopper. 
Black Lion. 







Kahing (Gkeen). 






Best Chops. 


Good Chops. 


Market Chops. 


Extra 


Fish and Man Extra. 






1 


Fish and Man 1. 
Swan 1. 
Mandarin Duck M. 


Woman and Loom 1. 
Gold Swallow 1. 
Gold Eagle Extra. 




2 


Swan 2. 

Mandarin Duck M M. 


Woman and Loom 2. 
Gold Swallow 2. 
Gold Eagle 1. 




3 


Swan 3. 

Mandarin Duck M M M. 


Woman and Loom 3 
Gold Eagle 2. 


Almond Flower 1. 


4 


Swan 4. 

Mandarin Duck M M M M. 




Almond Flower 2. 
Gold Star 1. 



312 



TEXTILES 



^8. 

■a -J 



£ & 



T3 



P^Ph 



o^ 






o o^i R 

r^gg 

<j<jAP3 



rH 6JD 



p) 03 



.S'o Gf 



r^ 

o 

pi 



3 



CDQ g 

ACS 

o fl rn 
Oli O 
C ■ M ■+-> 



oS rH cj CN '^ o3 

rO ^ ^ bfi'* 






bo 



6J0 

r^ -+s ^ 



jd -* & H & 2 



£1, Pi O S^^ 1,,' w 
^•|H H\ -H rH j,jq aj.iH 



W^Ph g«M pq g £ pq pq pq ^Ph PP 



be 

P 



1=^ 



bb r=J.t1 


« OC 


13 p; 


aelin 
ng. 
Elep 
hoen 


Ph $ 


od o ^ m^ 


co E~i 


T3 rP © © 


|g/g 


Hb^w 


HW 



■ rH CM • S 



pq 



h^ 



rsi 


M 


ci 


r« 


it! 


CO 

ci 


pi 


CO 

eg 


pq 


W 


pq 


pq 



PI 






:M 



> bfi 



liH 






S 



pq 



rP • 

O 6C 

|m 

2 8 

^^ 

pqo 



cq / o 

_ pq 



rH 

c 



SILK THROWING AND SPINNING 
Kahing (White). 



313 



Gold Lily Flower 
Extra. 

Tsu Kee^, Yuen 
Gn alius:. 



Gold Lily 
Flower 1. 

Tsu Kee Yuen 
Kinling. 



Gold Lily 
Flower 2. 

Tsu Kee Yuen 
Fongling. 



Gold Lily 
Flower 3. 

Tsu Kee Yuen 
Sueling. 



Gold Lily 
Flower 4. 



Hangchow Tsatlees. 





Best Chops. 


Good Chops. 


Market Chops. 


1 Best 


Lily Flower Lantyar. 
Pagoda Tingfong. 
Peony and Phoenix 
Extra. 


Blue Lion Extra. 


Stork and Tree Extra. 


1 


Lily Flower Laegno. 
Pagoda Layfong. 
Peony and Phoenix 1. 


Blue Lion 1. 


Stork and Tree 1. 


2 


Lily Flower Laebing. 
Pagoda Deahow. 
Peony and Phoenix 2. 


Blue Lion 2. 


Stork and Tree 2. 


3 


Peony and Phoenix 3. 
Lily Flower Laeling. 







Chincums. 



Best Chops. 



Tiger Extra 
Best. 



Good Chops. 



Peach, Tree and Nut 1 
Gnolin°\ 



Market Chops. 



Fighting Cock 1. 
Blue Flying Dragon 1 . 
Double Lion 1. 
Gold Pagoda Extra. 



314 



TEXTILES 



o 













CS r-" 












fn 












■♦^ — 


Pi 
o 












5 










n b 


u 










o3 S 


o 

"u 










pqW 


c 










23 












"o "o 

oo 






<N 


CO 


"* 




to 


A4 


^ 


rM 


^ 






u 






pH 




^3 


o 


o 


o 


O 




-l^> 


-m 


-»-> 






CJ 


cc 


3Q 


oa 


02 




<u 


■"Ci 


nd 


T3 


H=S 




M 




PI 


PI 


P| 




8 


5 


o3 


03 


03 




^ 


?H 


^ 


r-f 


^ 






CD 


CD 


CD 


CD 






<D 


CD 


CD 


CD 






ft 


ft 


ft 


ft 










^ 


ON 








• . ""^ 


!>> . c<5 


>> CO 


tH 


S 


>> 


!h <» P 

S 5° 6/0 


CD CD O 
43 cc 6X) 


CD O P 

-p ai be 


pi 
o 

60 


o 


Eh 


-^ fc c3 


-B CJ o3 


•e h cs 


c3 




CD 


-y ,Q n 


p! O f-i 


P O f-| 




t3 


pi 

pq 


^Wft 

M CD CD 


wWft 


Wftft 


ft 


o 


CD CD CD 


CD CD CD 


CD 




CD tJ ' — i 








O 


2 


^S'S 


,0,0,0 


"o"o"3 


53 




iOS S 


pi pi p! 


n pi 


pi 




"o 


PI o o 


O o o 


o o o 


o 




O 


jcftft 


ftftfl 


fiftft 


ft 




03 












45r4 r M 

Pi ^ w 




CM* 


CO 




w 


■PN • 


-§«« 


-g^co 


•d^ 


ft 
O 

O 


goo 


goo 


m ™ U 

$ o o 


goo 


CD _m 

CO rfl 

o 3 




^jHffi 


^Wro 






W02 


n 


^ PI C 


^aa 


* a Pi 


^ pi pi 


"=• S 




nS CD CD 


CD CD CD 


CD O CD 


CD CD CD 


CD CD 




r-j CD CD 


■3 CD CD 


rj <D CD 


3 CD CD 


CD CD 




O h h 


^ in Jh 


-P< >M ?H 


i~t fH 




ooo 


WOO 


WOO 


WOO 


oo 










-t= 












© 










-4-2 


r*4 






e3 


H 


m 


H 








/ 


CD 

w 


03 
2 






H 


• 


CM 


CN 





SILK THROWING AND SPINNING 
Chincums — continued. 



315 





Best Chops. 


Good Chops. 


Market Chops. 


II. 


Tiger Extra. 


Peach, Tree and Nut 2 
Gnoling. 


Fighting Cock 2. 
Blue Flying Dragon 2. 
Double Lion 2. 
Gold Pagoda 1. 


III. 


Tiger No. 1. 


Peach, Tree and Nut 3 
Gnoling. 


Fighting Cock 3. 
Blue Flying Dragon 3. 
Double Lion 3. 
Gold Pagoda 2. 

Gold Stork 4. 

Blue Flying Eagle 4. 



Skeins. 



No. 1. 


No. 2. 


No. 3. 


No. 4. 


No. 5. 


Double Men 1. 


Double Men 2. 


Double Men 3. 


White Stork 


White 


Lucky Twins 1. 


liucky Twins 2. 


Lucky Twins 3. 


Extra. 


Stork 1. 


Three Men 1. 


Three Men 2. 


Blue Monster 1. 


Blue 


Red 






Old Man 1. 


Monster 2. 


Monster. 






Green Monster 1. 


Old Man 2. 
Green 

Monster 2. 


Old 
Man 3. 



Shantung (Fine). 



1 Best. 



Gold Buffalo. 
Double Dragon 1. 
Lily Flower 1. 
Double Almond 

Flower 1. 
Black Triple 

Lion 1. 



Gold Elephant. 
Double Dragon 2. 
Lily Flower If. 
Double Almond 

Flower 2. 
Black Triple 

Lion 2. 



3 Best. 



Double Dragon 3. 
Double Almond 

Flower 2 \. 
Black Triple 

Lion 3. 



Blue Goat. 
Double Dragon 4. 
Blue Stork. 



§16 



TEXTILES 
Shantung (Coarse). 



Extra. 


Best. 


Gold Stork Lay Yo. 


Gold Stork Lert Cee. 


Silver ,, ,, 




Silver ,, ,, 


Blue „ 




Blue „ 


Gold Stag 




Gold Stag ,, 


Silver ,, ,, 




Silver , , , , 


Blue „ 




Blue 


J? y j 


Gold Stork Charpar. 


Gold Stork Mar Deu. 


Gold Stork Quay Lee. 


Silver ,, ,, 


Silver , , , , 


Silver , , , , 


Blue „ 


Blue „ 


Blue „ 


Gold Stag 


Gold Stag ,, 


Gold Stag 


Silver ,, ,, 


Silver , , , , 


Silver ,, ,, 


Blue „ 


Blue „ 


Blue „ 


Gold Stork 






Chuntong (Tungloo) . 






Silver ,, ,, 






Blue „ 






Gold Stag ,, 






Silver „ ,, 






Blue „ 







Yellow Silks from the Seychuen District. 



Minchew 


Extra 


Good I. 


Market I. 


Best II. 


No. 2 
Common 


Kopun 


Extra 


Good I. 


Market I. 


No. lj 


No. 2 


Meeyang 












Yellow 


Market I. 


No. 1£ 


No. 2 






White 


Best I. 


Market I. 


No. li 


No. 2 




Fooyung 












Yellow 


Best I. 


Market I. 








White 


Best I. 


Market I. 


No. H 


No. 2 




Wongyi 


Best I. 


Market I. 


No. \\ 


No. 2 




Wangchew 


Best I. 


Market I. 


No. 2 






Songtsan 


No. 1 




/ 






Szechong 


Best I. 


Market I. 


No. 1| 


No. 2 






SILK THBOWLNG AND SPINNING 
Tussah Filatures. 



31". 



True Filatures. 



Whafong : Worm and Leaf 1 and 2. 

Yee Foong : Gold Double Dragon , , 
Whatai : Flag 1, Blue Cross 2. 



Best. 



Spinning Girls 1. 

Black Pagoda 1. 

Sun and Pagoda 1. 

Gold Bell. 

Black Monkey 1. 

Peony 1. 

Gold Flying Fish. 

Black Cowboy 1. 

Gold Unicorn 1. 

White Double Elephant 1. 

Japanese Woman. 

American and Chinese Flag 1 . 

Black Double Magpie 1 . 

Gold Stork. 

Black Leopard 1. 

Black Pony. 

Commercial Flag. 

Black Double Horses. 



Spinning Girls 2. 

Black Pagoda 2. 

Sun and Pagoda 2. 

Silver Bell. 

Black Monkey 2. 

Peony 2. 

Gold Toad. 

Black Cowboy 2. 

Gold Unicorn 2. 

White Double Elephant 2. 

American and Chinese Flag 2. 

Black Double Magpie. 

Wong Lie Soo. 

Gold Single Man. 

Gold Mars. 

Gold Woman. 

Black Single Deer. 

Black Single Goat. 

Almond Tree. 

Mandarin Horse. 

Gold Single Cock. 

Black Zebra. 

Sun. 

Gold Ostrich. 

Black Nine Ladies. 

Gold Eagle. 

Bed Unicorn. 

Black Leopard No. 2. 

Double Mandarin Duck. 

Blue Butterfly. 

Gold Snake. 

Policeman. 

Black Double Lion. 

Black Flying Horse. 



318 



TEXTILES 
Tussah Filatuees — continued. 



Good B. 


Good B. 


Gold Single Peach. 
Gold Double Rabbits. 
Gold Horse. 
Black Eirtree. 
Black Riding Horse. 
Black Seven Stars. 
Red Double Wild Geese. 
Silver Woman. 


Silver Ostrich. 
Silver Eagle. 
Silver Cock. 
Tramway. 

Gold Double Horse. 
Black Flying Dragon. 
Piano Girl. 


Current A. 


Current B. 


Pluck Mulberry. 

Gold Phoenix. 

Gold Cash. 

Gold Double Men. 

Red Woman. 

Black Three Elephants. 

Red Cock. 

Red Ostrich. 

Red Eagle. 

Black Steamship. 

Red Nine Ladies. 

Black Double Goats. 

Gold Tiger. 

Blue Double Wild Geese. 

Gold Double Peach. 

Black Double Rabbit. 

Silver Single Peach. 

Moon. 

Black Locomotive. 


Gold Three Men. 
Blue Cash. 
Silver Phoenix. 
Gold Double Pony. 
Silver Double Peach. 
Silver Double Rabbits. 
Green Woman. 
Gold Mountain. 
Green Locomotive. 
Gold Sampan. 
Gold Double Birds. 
Black Double Deer. 
Black Double Wild Geese. 
Blue Eagle. 
Blue Phoenix. 
Green Phoenix. 
Bicycle. 


No. 2. 


No. 2 Inferior. 


No. 3. 


Black Fan. 
Silver Mountain. 
Gold Fox. 
Three Deers. 
Red Sampan. 
Blue Sampan. 


Gold Lion. 


Gold Dog. 



SILK THROWING AND SPINNING 



319 



Classification of Native Eeeled Tussahs. 
By Messrs. A. Puthod. & Co. (Importers). 



Best. 


Market No. 1. 


Market No. 1J. 


Market No. 2. 


No. 3 and Inferior. 


Gold Dragon 










" Extra." 










(Ching Cheong) 










Gold Stat 


Gold Star. 


Silver Star. 


Red Star. 


Golden Vase. 


" Extra." 










Greyhound I. 


Greyhound II. 


Greyhound III. 


Greyhound IV. 




Gold Anchor 


Gold Anchor. 


Silver Anchor. 


Red Anchor. 




" Extra." 










Gold Bird 


Gold Bird. 


Silver Bird. 


Red Bird. 


Black Bird. 


" Extra." 










Gold Cock and 


Cock and Flag 


Cock and Flag 


Cock and Flag 


Cock and Flag 


Flag, Best I. 


Gold I. 


Gold II. 


Gold III. 


Gold IV. 


Blue Horse 


Blue Horse. 


Red Horse. 


Green Horse. 


Yellow Horse. 


" Extra." 










Gold Lyre. 


Gold Teapot. 


Silver Teapot. 


Red Teapot. 


Gold Cat and 

Tree. 
Blue Cat and 

Tree. 


Gold Parrot. 


Gold Eagle. 


Gold Pelican. 


Gold Fish. 


Silver Fish. 
Red Fish. 


Blue Mountain. 


Gold Mountain. 


SilverMountain. 


Red Mountain. 


Green Mountain. 




Gold Railway. 


Silver Railway. 


Red Railway. 


Black Railway. 




Gold Basilisk. 


Silver Basilisk. 


Red Basilisk. 


Blue Basilisk. 


Gold Cross. 


Silver Cross. 


Blue Cross. 


White Cross. 


Red Cross. 


Moon " Extra." 


Moon I. 


Moon II. 


Moon III. 


Moon IV. 


Gold Pheasant. 


Gold Fairy and 


Silver Fairy 


Red Fairy and 


Blue Fairy and 




Deer. 


and Deer. 


Deer. 


Deer. 
Yellow Fairy 
and Deer. 


Yellow Ticket. 


White Ticket. 


Blue Ticket. 


Rfed Ticket. 


Ticket No. III. 




Gold Boudha. 


Silver Boudha. 


Red Boudha. 




Gold Temple 


Gold Temple. 


Silver Temple. 


Red Temple. 


Black Temple. 


" Extra." 








No. 3 Temple. 


Gold Mandarin 


Gold Mandarin 


Gold Mandarin 


Gold Mandarin 


Gold Mandarin 


Extra Best. 


Extra. 


I. 


II. 


III. 




Gold Swallow. 


Silver Swallow. 


Red Swallow. 


Blue Swallow, 
bellow Swallow. 


Gold Elephant 


Gold Elephant. 


Silver Elephant. 


Red Elephant. 




" Extra." 










(Ching Cheong) 










Gold Phoenix 


Gold Phoenix I. 


Gold Phoenix 


Gold Phoenix 


Gold Phoenix 


" Extra." 




IT. 


III. 


IV. 


Double Magpie 


Double Gold 


Double Gold 






Gold " Extra." 


Magpie I. 


Magpie II. 






Gold Peacock 


Gold Peacock 


Gold Peacock 


Gold Peacock 




" Extra." 


I. 


II. 


III. 





CHAPTEE XVI 

THE COTTON INDUSTRY 

(By William H. Cook, of Manchester) 

The cotton branch of the textile industry has increased 
at such a rate during the last century in all parts of the 
world, and has now arrived at such proportions, that it 
may safely be said to occupy the foremost position among 
the industrial arts. 

It has more money invested in buildings, plant, and 
stock, and employs more workpeople, directly and indirectly, 
than any other manufacturing branch of trade in this, or 
probably any other country. 

It is supposed that the manufacture of cotton originated 
in India about 1100 b.c., and the methods then used have 
practically remained the same, until within a comparatively 
recent date. The Hindoos spun yarn and manufactured 
material of as fine a quality as can be produced to-day in 
any Lancashire mill, equipped with the best and most 
modern machinery. In the course of ordinary events the 
trade in cotton and cotton goods spread westwards, until 
we find it in Italy in the fourteenth, Germany, Prussia, 
and England in the sixteenth, France in the seventeenth, 
and in Russia in the eighteentlKcentury. 

The first reported importation of cotton into England 



THE COTTON INDUSTRY 



321 



was in the year 1298, and ifc was mainly used for candle- 
wick. Manchester goods, which were principally made 
from a mixture of woollen and cotton, or linen and cotton, 
were first heard of in the year 1352. 

The weight and value of the cotton used has reached an 
enormous amount, as will he seen from Table I., which has 
been compiled by the Cotton Spinners' Federation. 

Table I. 



Country. 


Number of Spindles. 


Cotton Used. 
All Kinds. 






Bales. 


Great Britain . 


43,154,713 


3,462,823 


Germany 


9,191,940 


1,661,180 


France . 


6,603,105 


923,423 


Austria . 


3,584,434 


705,007 


Italy 


2,867,862 


731,357 


Switzerland . 


1,413,896 


89,360 


Belgium . 


1,110,600 


190,756 


Japan 


1,356,713 


1,068,000 


Spain 


1,387,500 


255,754 


Portugal 


388,000 


86,936 


Russia . 


2,361,513 


548,892 


Holland . 


395,678 


73,870 


Sweden . 


326,860 


76,559 


Norway . 


65,776 


10,647 


Denmark 


48,104 


20,143 


Levant . 


23,184 


13,100 


Egypt . 


. 39,200 


4,386 


United States of 






America 


26,242,000 


4,987,000 


Total . 


100,561,078 


14,909,193 



These returns do not include China and some other 
small producing countries. 

It will be noticed that the consumption per spindle varies 
very considerably in the different countries ; this, in most 
cases, arises from the difference in the counts spun. 

T. y 



322 TEXTILES 

It will be seen also that 43 per cent, of the total spindles 
are in the United Kingdom. 

The greater part of the cotton used is American, as out 
of the total of 34,909,193 bales used, 11,668,575 bales are 
of this variety. 

The total production of American during the last season 
was 6,500,000,000 lbs. It is interesting to know that a 
little over a century ago an American ship which imported 
eight bags of cotton into Liverpool was seized on the 
grounds that so much cotton could not he produced in the 
United States. 

The total world's production during the last twelve 
months is estimated at 8,000,000,000 lbs. 

Particulars as to the number of looms and the amount 
of cloth produced in the various countries are not easy to 
obtain, but Table II. gives the fullest information obtainable 
in regard to the increases in production and reductions in 
wage costs of both cloth and yarn in the United Kingdom 
in the years 1856, 1880, and 1905. 

Table II. is very interesting, as it shows that during the 
last half-century the weight of yarn produced has increased 
by 886-7 million lbs. 

The hours worked have decreased by 7'5 per cent., and 
the labour cost per lb. of yarn has decreased by 55*8 per 
cent. 

The production of cloth has increased by 7,950 million 
yards ; the hours worked have decreased by 7"5 per cent., 
and the labour cost per yard has decreased by 24*36 per cent. 

During the time these changes have been taking place 
the average wages of the operatives have increased by 
94 per cent., as shown in Table III. 



THE COTTON INDUSTRY 
Table II. 



323 



Production and Costs of Cotton Yarns and Cloths in the 
United Kingdom. 



*■ 


1856. 


1880. 


1905. 


Raw Cotton Imports, millions of 








lbs 


1,023-8 


1,629-2 


2,203-5 


Raw Cotton Exports, millions of 








lbs 


146-6 


224-6 


283-1 


1 Yarn Production, millions of 








lbs., average counts . 


745-6 


1,194-0 


1,632-3 


Yarn Exported, millions of lbs. 


182-0 


215-7 


205-0 


Yarn for Home Consumption, mil- 








lions of lbs., average counts 


563-6 


978-3 


1,427-3 


Cloth Production, millions of yards, 








average width. .... 


3,600-0 


7,737-0 


11,550-0 


Cloth Exported, millions of yards . 


2,036-5 


4,496-3 


6,198-2 


Number of Spindles 


28,000,000 


42,000,000 


50,000,000 


,, Looms .... 


300,000 


550,000 


700,000 


,, Operatives in weaving- 








mills 


175,000 


246,000 


306,000 2 


,, Operatives in spinning 








mills 


205,000 


240,000 


211,000 2 


Working Hours per Week 


60 


56J 


55£ 


Average Weekly Wages, 17 classes 








of operatives .... 


14s. Gd. 


19s. lOd 


26s. 2d. 


Operatives per 1,000 Spindles 


7-3 


5*7 


4-2 


Production of Yarn per operative 








per year, lbs. .... 


3,637-0 


4,975-0 


7,736-0 


Production of Cloth per Operative, 








yards ...... 


20,580 


31,860 


37,740 


Production of Yarn per Spindle per 








Year, lbs., average counts . 


27-0 


2S-5 


32-6 


Production of Cloth per Loom per 








Year, yards, average width 


12,000 


14,250 


16,500 


Labour Cost per lb. of Yarn, 








average counts .... 


2- id. 


2-0d. 


1-0&Z. 


Labour Cost per Yard of Cloth, 








average width .... 


'bod. 


•447d. 


•416tZ. 



1 Taking an average of 15 per cent, waste. Stocks not taken into 
account. 

2 From latest published Blue Books, 1903. 

Y 2 



324 TEXTILES 

Table III. 

Average Weekly Wages of Cotton-Mill Operatives, 
Manchester and Oldham Districts. 





1856. 


1SS0. 


1905. 




GO hours 


56J hours 


55i hours 




per week. 


per week. 


per week. 




s. d. 


s. d. 


s. d. 


Scutcher ...... 


S 


13 8 


24 6 


Card-room Overlooker .... 


28 


38 6 


50 


Drawing-frame Tenter .... 


9 


15 


19 


Spinners' Overlooker .... 


26 


40 


50 


Mule Spinners (average of fine, medium, 








and coarse) ..... 


24 1 


33 6 


45 


Mule Piecers (average of fine, medium, 








and coarse) ..... 


8 3 


10 8 


14 10 


Throstle Spinners ..... 


9 


14 


16 


Doffers ....... 


6 


9 


8 


Beelers ....... 


9 


12 


17 


Winders ...... 


9 


14 2 


18 


Warpers ...... 


23 


33 


45 


Beamers ...... 


22 


24 9 


22 


Doubling Overlookers .... 


28 


24 


35 


Doublers ...... 


9 


12 


16 


Gassers ....... 


9 6 


13 


20 


Weavers (average number of looms) 


11 2 


15 3 


24 


Average of above seventeen classes of 








Operatives ...... 


14 6 


19 10 


26 2 


Comparison, calculated for number of 








hours worked 


100 


144 


194 



The altered conditions of the operatives are further seen 
by a comparison of the cost of living during the periods 
given in Tables II. and III. The particulars regarding 
cost of food have been obtained from the books of one 
of the large Manchester hospitals, no other data being to 
hand. 



THE COTTON INDUSTRY 

Table IV. 

Comparative Conditions of Cotton Mill Operatives 
in the United Kingdom. 



325 





1S56. 


1SS0. 


1005. 


Total number of Operatives em- 








ployed in Cotton Mills 


380,000 


486,000 


523,000 1 


Number of Half-time Operatives . 


10,050 


51,000 


21,000* 


Aj;e of Children admitted to work 








Half Time 


9 years. 


10 years. 


12 years. 


Age of Children admitted to work 








Full Time .... 


13 years. 


13 years. 


13 years. 




s. d. 


s. d. 


s. d. 


Average House Rents . 


3 


5 


6 


Paid by one of the Manchester 








Hospitals : — ■ 








Meat, per lb. . 


7i 


8 


6 


Flour, per doz. lbs. . 


2 6 


2 


1 2 


Bread, per 4 lb. loaf . 


N^ 


7* 


oh 


Sugar, per lb. . 


7 


3j 


If 


Tea, per lb 


4 6 


2 


1 4 


Butter, per lb. .... 


1 2 


1 


11 



1 From latest published Blue Books, 1903. 

One very satisfactory feature in this table is the increase 
in the age at which children are allowed to commence work 
as half-timers. It is very probable that at a near date the 
system of half-time working will be abolished in the cotton 
trade, as has been done for some years in the engineering 
trade. 

These increases in production have not arisen through 
any great mechanical invention, seeing that 'all the radical 
patents for spinning and weaving machinery are dated 
prior to 1825, with perhaps one or two exceptions, such as 
the Heileman Comber, the automatic feeder for openers 
and scutchers, or the piano feed-motion regulator. 



326 TEXTILES 

Wyatt invented the drawing frame, and Kay the fly 
shuttle in 1738 ; Lewis Paul the card in 1748, and the 
clever doffing comb mechanism about 1750. 

Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny in 1764, and 
Crompton the mule in 1779. 

The scutcher was invented in 1797, to be improved by 
the addition of the lap-end by Mr. Creighton fifty years 
later, and the piano-feed regulator by Mr. Lord in 1862. 

Holdsworth brought out his wonderful differential motion 
in 1830. It is so far back as 1825 that Kichard Eoberts 
invented his self-acting mule, and even the ring frame, 
which has made such tremendous strides during the last 
thirty years, was invented more than eighty years ago. 

There has, however, been a steady improvement in the 
details of the various machines, and in the methods of 
production by the machine-makers, so that it is possible to 
run at much higher speeds, and for the operative to attend 
a much larger number of spindles than formerly. 

A few of these improvements may be briefly mentioned : — 

(1) The revolving flat card, in which the old rollers and 
clearers of the roller and clearer card, with the incon- 
venience and dirt, are replaced by a travelling apron of 
flats or combs. This machine has taken many years to 
secure universal adoption, but on account of the cleaner 
work produced and the less cost for attention it is now used 
in almost every case except for very low counts and waste ; 
but it must be said that there are still many people who 
contend that the greater amount of waste made more than 
counteracts the saving in labour. 

The percentage of waste in the/roller and clearer card is 
generally about 2, whereas in the revolving flat card it is 5. 



THE COTTON INDUSTRY 327 

(2) Another great improvement is the presser used in 
connection with preparation frame spindles. This is a 
very simple but most effective addition to the spindle, and 
consists of the addition to the old flyer of a loose leg, to 
which is added a foot called a presser. The outer part, or 
leg, is heavier than the inner part, or foot, and during 
revolution the centrifugal force of the leg being greater than 
that of the foot causes an inward pressure on the bobbin, 
thus enabling the machine to make a bobbin which is not 
so liable to damage in the after-process, and also contains 
a much greater length of material. This improvement has 
tended, in a great degree, to the reduction of cost in the 
preparatory stages of spinning. 

(3) The piano-feed regulator, patented in 1862 by Mr. 
Lord, is also worthy of notice. This invention has for its 
object the regulating of the lap. It consists of a number of 
pedals like the keys on a piano. These pedals "feel " the 
cotton, and if it is too thick or too thin they put into action 
a motion which decreases or increases the rate of feed, thus 
automatically adjusting the volume of cotton in accordance 
with the weight per yard decided upon. 

(4) Another patent of importance is the "Eabbeth" 
spindle for ring spinning and doubling frames. When the 
ring frame was first introduced it had top and bottom 
bearings for the spindle, which required oiling every day. 
This, besides being troublesome, was liable to cause dirty 
yarn, and it was not possible to run the spindle at a greater 
speed than 5,000 revolutions per minute, whereas the 
" Kabbeth," or self-contained gravity spindle, only requires 
oiling about every two months, and even with an unbalanced 
bobbin will run steadily at 20,000 revolutions per minute, 



328 TEXTILES 

a speed much higher than is required, the maximum speed 
at which the worker can attend to the frame being about 
10,000 revolutions. It will readily be seen what a great effect 
this patent has had in increasing the production of yarn. 

(5) Another patent is the cross-winding frame. This 
machine was rendered necessary mainly on account of the 
changes in the location of the spinning and the weaving 
mills, and to meet the different conditions existing between 
mule and ring spinning mills, as also the hostile foreign 
tariffs. These varied conditions made it necessary to be 
able to send the yarn from place to place with the smallest 
possible amount of tares. 

(6) Then of late years we have had the introduction of 
the automatic feeder into the blowing-room. This machine 
automatically regulates the supply of cotton to the cylinder 
or beater of the opener, and thus more regular laps of 
cotton are produced than formerly, besides reducing the 
cost of attention 50 per cent. 

(7) For certain classes and qualities the yarn spun on 
the mule is still considered to be superior to that produced 
on the ring spinning frame, especially for the very fine 
counts. Although the self-acting mule was invented and 
introduced some considerable time previous to 1856, the 
main principles are still the same, and the same facts hold 
good that this machine has only been improved in its 
detail parts. One of the main advances is concerning the 
number of spindles per mule. In 1856 and 1905 they were 
500 and 1,300 respectively. 

(8) Finally, there is the introduction of the various new 
types of looms. Previous to these there had been no 
radical alterations in the design of the loom for more than 



THE COTTON INDUSTRY 329 

fifty years. The automatic loom has made rather slow 
progress in England up to the present time, but there is no 
doubt they have come to stay. When it is borne in mind 
that a weaver can only attend to six looms of the old type, 
as a maximum, whereas he can attend to twenty-four or 
more of the new type, it will be seen that these automatic 
loonrs have a future before them. 

In 1856, the earliest period in the tables of comparison, 
on page 323, the average spinning mill was constructed on 
very unsatisfactory principles, and it would contain about 
30,000 spindles. 

The mills generally had narrow, low, dark and ill-venti- 
lated rooms, and the sanitary arrangements were exceedingly 
poor and unsatisfactory. 

The power was in some cases transmitted by means of a 
water wheel, but steam engines were more generally adopted. 
These engines were of the beam type, single condensing, 
with cylinders up to GO ins. diameter, and 8 ft. stroke, 
running 20 to 30 revolutions per minute. The steam 
pressure was from 20 to 60 lbs. per square inch, and the 
consumption about 25 lbs. of steam, and 3^ to 5 lbs. of coal 
per indicated horse-power. 

The power was transmitted to the various rooms by 
means of spur gearing. 

The spinning spindles were either of the mule or flyer 
type, running at 6,000 and 3,500 revolutions per minute, 
and producing "52 lbs. and "4 lbs. of yarn average counts, 
32s. per spindle per week of 60 hours respectively. 

The cost of such a mill was from 45s. to 50s. per spindle, 
including buildings, boilers, engines, machinery, and 
accessories. The cost of a weaving shed was ^15 per loom. 



330 



TEXTILES 




bo 

'3 



6C 

a 

d 
a> 

o 



THE COTTON INDUSTRY 331 

At the present time the average mill contains about 
80,000 spindles, and the yarn produced may be taken at an 
average of 40s. counts. The buildings are of the most 
approved design for cheap production and economical 
driving, and the sanitary arrangements are of the latest. 

The machinery is so arranged that the raw cotton from 
the* bale passes through the various machines until it 
arrives in the warehouse in the form of yarn, without 
traversing the same ground twice ; that is, it pursues the 
shortest course possible to save cost in handling. 

This is clearly shown on Fig. 75, which gives-the arrange- 
ment of one of the most modern ring spinning mills, built 
in the shed form. This type has been adopted here because 
the whole of the processes in spinning and weaving can be 
clearly shown. In Fig. 76 a plan of a mill taking the 
cotton from the raw state to the finished product is given. 

The power is mostly transmitted by steam engines, 
although great efforts are at present being made to intro- 
duce driving by electricity. Many mills in foreign countries 
have been arranged with this drive, particularly where 
there is a plentiful supply of water, which enables the 
engineer to install water turbo -generators, and to produce 
the electrical power much more cheaply than where steam 
is used. 

Several mills have been fitted up in England recently 
with electrical driving, but the results have not yet been 
made public, so that it is not possible to say what prospects 
there are for this type of driving. 

Steam turbines have also been installed into several 
mills with very satisfactory results. 

Where steam engines are used they are of the recipro- 



332 



TEXTILES 




Fig. 76.— Plan of Cotton Mill. 



eating type, either vertical or horizontal, with double, 
triple, and in some cases quadruple expansion, and of 
powers up to 2,500 indicated horsepower. The cylinders 
are made up to 66 in. diameter, with stroke up to 6 ft. 



THE COTTON INDUSTRY 333 

The crank shafts make 60 to 80 revolutions per minute, 
and are fitted with fly-wheels in the form of rope pulleys 
up to 30 ft. diameter, prepared to receive as many as fifty 
ropes of If in. diameter for driving the main shafts in the 
various rooms, thus dispensing with all spur gearing, giving 
greater freedom from breakdown, and much smoother and 
quieter running. 

The steam consumption is from 12 to 16 lbs. of steam, 
and the coal consumption about \\ to 2 lbs. per indicated 
horse-power. 

In cases where superheated steam is used the compound 
engine is about as economical as the triple expansion 
working under ordinary conditions. 

The present mill hours are 55^ per week. 

The flyer frame has become almost obsolete, and the 
mills are either filled with ring or mule spindles, or in 
some cases both types of spinning machinery. 

The speed of the spindles is — mule 11,000 revolutions, 
ring 9,500 ; and the production "75 lbs. mule, and 1 lb. 
ring average counts 40s. per spindle per week respectively. 

The various processes through which the cotton passes 
from the bales to the yarn or cloth are shown in the form 
of a diagram on page 334 (Fig. 77). 

The cost of a mule mill is about 23s. per spindle, and 
the cost of a ring mill from 38s. to 42s. per spindle 
inclusive. 

The cost of a modern weaving shed is about £26 per 
loom. 

Most of the extra cost per spindle in the ring mill arises 
from the greater production per spindle, which, as a con- 
sequence, requires more preparation machinery. 



334 



TEXTILES 



T=^ 



/\ /\ 









ATTENUATINO AND T 


WISTINO T 


E STRANG 






" 


E COLLECTED STRAND 
















1 




™. B 


-7- 


ROVINO 




" 




3 L UB 3,NO 




























FINE QUALITY YARNS 



\c- - „_--- 1 --- ; - ; _ ; . 1 



J 




Eig. 77. — Graphic Illustration of Processes in Cotton Manufacture. 



The greater cost of the modern weaving shed arises from 
the far superior manner in which if is fitted up. 

The great reduction in the cost of erecting the modern 



THE COTTON INDUSTRY 335 

mill is further apparent when it is known that the average 
wages of the employees in the machine works have increased 
12J per cent., and the hours have been reduced 1\ per 
cent. 

It has only been possible to do this by the introduction 
of labour-saving machinery of the highest type. 

The machine construction branch of the textile industry 
is now so well organized that even with the heavy duties 
which are imposed by foreign countries the greater part of 
the machinery used in all parts of the world is produced in 
England, and there does not appear to be any reason to 
fear that for a long time to come England will lose her 
supremacy in either the machine-making or the spinning 
or manufacturing branch of the textile industry. 



CHAPTER XVII 

THE LINEN INDUSTRY HISTORICALLY AND COMMERCIALLY 
CONSIDERED 

By Fred Bradbury, Professor of Textile Industries, 
Municipal Technical Institute, Belfast. 

The cultivation of the flax plant, the separation of the 
fibres from the straw, the preparing and spinning of these 
same fibres into yarns, and their subsequent manufacture 
into linen cloth form to-day no insignificant branch of the 
textile industry, employing, as it does, tens of thousands of 
persons in the various progressive sections from the sowing 
of the flax seed to the distribution of the finished woven 
product. 

Earliest Records. 

The Biblical records testify that flax was cultivated, 
yarn spun, and linen fabrics woven in the patriarchal 
times. It is also interesting to know that the manufacture 
of fine linens is spoken of in all classical records, books, 
and writings from the earliest times. 

If the growth of flax, together with all the subsequent 
processes of preparation and manufacture into cloth, were 
considered from the point of antiquity alone, it would form 
an interesting volume, since most people manifest an 



THE LINEN INDUSTRY 337 

intense interest in anything which can justly claim to have 
its foundation in prehistoric times. 

Flax. — The first mention in the sacred writings of flax 
by that name occurs in connection with the plagues of 
Egypt (Ex. ix. 31) : " And the flax and the barley were 
smitten, for the barley was in the ear and the flax was 
bolleoV' The virtuous woman is described by Solomon as 
one who " seeketh wool and flax and worketh it with her 
hands. . . . She layeth her hands to the spindle and her 
hands hold the distaff. . . . She maketh fine linen and 
selleth it " (Prov. xxxi. 13, 19, 24). 

Scriptural Records : Linen. — The first scriptural record of 
linen described by that name is found in Gen. xli. 42 : 
" And Pharaoh took off his ring from off his hand and put 
it upon Joseph's hand, and arrayed him in vestures of fine 
linen, and put a gold chain upon his neck." This was 
in 1715 b.c, when Pharaoh exalted Joseph to the second 
position in the kingdom. Though this is the first refer- 
ence to linen in the Scriptures, it is very evident that linen 
fabrics were made long before this period, since the 
reference is to fine linen, ondifine linen can only be manu- 
factured after many efforts and long experience. The 
sackcloth which Jacob put on (Gen. xxxvii. 34), when 
Joseph's coat of many colours was brought to him, was in 
all probability made of coarse linen cloth. Some historians 
contend that coarse fabrics of flax were produced in the 
antediluvian age, and that the covering of Jabal's tents 
(Genesis iv. 20, 3875 b.c.) were made of some coarse 
flaxen or hempen material. 

Linen — Emblematic of Purity. — "Wherever cleanliness and 
purity were required the chosen symbol among fabrics 

t. z 



33S TEXTILES 

was linen, and in this respect it stands unique among all 
textile fabrics, and as such is spoken of as being of service 
in the glorious hereafter. Moses, in enumerating to the 
people the articles which might be offered for the fitting 
and completing of the tabernacle, says : " And blue and 
purple and scarlet and fine linen and goat's hair " (Ex. xxv. 4). 
Later, when Aaron and his sons were set apart as priests 
unto the people, instructions were given that Aaron's coat 
was to be embroidered in fine linen, and that his sons were 
to wear linen breeches. Further, whenever the Jewish 
priests entered in at the gates of the inner court of the 
sanctuary they were to be clothed with linen garments and 
no wool was to be upon them while they ministered within 
the gates. They were also to have linen bonnets upon 
their heads and linen breeches upon their loins during the 
ceremony, and were not to be girded with anything that 
causeth sweat (Ezek. xliv. 17, 18). St. John the Divine 
describes the seven angels as being clothed in pure white 
linen, and says : "For the fine linen is the righteousness 
of the saints;" and again: "The armies which were in 
heaven followed him upon white horses clothed in fine 
linen, white and clean." 

Evolution of the Linen Manufacture. 

Egypt — the Birthplace. — Historians generally agree that 
linen was first manufactured in Egypt. The flax plant 
was indigenous to the soil of Egypt, the climate and the 
Nile were favourable to its growth, and there appears to 
be no doubt as to its extensive cultivation in the earliest 
history of the country. It is an established fact that linen 
cloths were made in Egypt more than 4,000 years ago, 



THE LINEN INDUSTRY 339 

specimens of tbe linen having been discovered in the land 
of the Pharaohs which were proved to be at least that 
age. Solomon had linen yarn brought out of Egypt, and 
the king's merchants received the linen yarn at a price 
(2 Chron. i. 16). 

As already intimated, many of the fabrics woven in those 
early times have been preserved unto the present day as a 
result of the practice, then common, of embalming the 
dead. The choice of linen for this purpose was due to 
the material being able to resist the development of animal 
life in a more marked degree than fabrics made from animal 
fibres, such as wool, which germinate animal life much 
sooner, and consequently would defeat the end they were 
intended to serve. 

Many of the linens thus preserved were fine in texture, 
but " set " much closer in the warp than in the weft. This 
may be largely due to the method then practised of insert- 
ing tbe shuttle into the warp sbed with the one hand and 
then receiving it at the opposite side by the other hand. 
Then, too, since tbere was no " lay " for beating up the 
weft, the operation had to be performed with the aid of a 
stick, which necessarily meant slow and tedious work, 
however skilful the weaver might be. Nevertheless, some 
few of the textures thus woven compare favourably with 
many modern productions. A specimen among these cloths 
in plain weave revealed as many as 90 threads per inch in 
the warp and 45 in the weft ; a second contained 150 
threads of warp with about 70 shots of weft per inch 
respectively, involving the use of yarns which exceeded 
100 leas of 300 yards each per lb. — a line yarn and sett ! 
One specimen is recorded to have contained at least 250 

z 2 



340 TEXTILES 

double threads per inch, with half the number of weft 
threads for the same length. The ancient tombs of Egypt 
reveal by pictures and other hieroglyphics the progressive 
stages through which the flax passed in those prehistoric 
times, and, singularly enough, the preparation of the fibre 
as then practised corresponds in many respects to the pre- 
sent method adopted, especially in Ireland. Some consider 
this an indication that the origin of the industry in the 
Emerald Isle was due to the migration of some Egyptians 
skilled in the art. There are many evidences to show that 
the Egyptians produced more yarn than their looms could 
weave and more cloth than the people themselves could 
consume, which, combined with the fact that they were not 
a commercial or maritime people, gave an opportunity to 
the Phoenician traders, who navigated the high seas for 
thirteen centuries to distribute their yarns and woven pro- 
ducts. Much of the latter was first delivered in Tyre, 
where the inhabitants dyed the fabrics in colours, for 
which they were famous, and afterwards the Phoenicians 
re-exported the goods to Persia, Arabia, Palestine, Greece, 
Italy, Spain and France, etc. 

Decline of Linen Manufacture in Egypt. — Eventually, as 
the years rolled on and Imperial arrogancy and oppres- 
sion increased with the succeeding decades, the great 
enterprise hitherto displayed by the Egyptians in the 
peaceful arts and hereditary skill in textile crafts began to 
wane and gradually decayed. 

Carthage, Babylon, and Greece. — With the advance of time, 
the renowned city of Carthage conducted the maritime 
commerce of the world, and discharged the duties of factor 
in fine linens as well as other textile materials. These 



THE LINEN INDUSTRY 341 

goods they sent westward into the countries of Europe, 
including Britain. In Babylon and the whole region of 
the Euphrates the cultivation of flax was largely carried 
on, and the manufacture of linen was common in all the 
cities on the banks of the Tigris ; but this industry has long 
since become extinct in these countries. Greece had also a 
small share in the growth of flax and manufacture of 
linen, though she was never much noted in this respect. 

Italy — Rome. — It is but natural to expect that Imperial 
Borne, exercising a world-wide influence, should seek to 
introduce into her country such a peaceful and profitable 
art as linen manufacturing. In her earliest days of con- 
quest and supremacy she chiefly imported linens from the 
East. Subsequently she gave every encouragement to the 
manufacture of the finest linens in several parts of Italy. 
The most important step probably ever taken in this 
respect was when she formed guilds or colleges of the 
factories which were noted for the manufacture of the best 
qualities and varieties of linens. In these Imperial fac- 
tories all kinds of clothing were made for the Emperor's 
family and court, and also for the officers and soldiers of 
the army. The guilds were also useful in collecting 
knowledge pertaining to the weavers' craft and of dissemi- 
nating it by her legions throughout the whole of tbeBoman 
Empire. 

Spain. — After the withdrawal of the Boman soldiers from 
Spain the Moors overran the country, yet it is recorded 
that they manufactured linens on an extensive scale and 
exported large quantities. 

Germany and Austria. — Ever since the dawn of the seventh 
century the linen trade has had a home in Germany. It 



342 TEXTILES 

is one of its oldest branches of industry, and formerly 
ranked amongst its most important. In 1169 the Hanse 
towns of Hamburg, Liibeck, and Bremen formed a league 
to protect their trade and commerce, of which linen pro- 
ducts formed the most important section. The Hanseatic 
League existed for several centuries, during which time it 
distributed the linen manufactures of Germany throughout 
the chief centres of Europe. In sympathy with German 
manufacture, Austrian linens date from an early period. 

France. — There was an extensive production of linens in 
Gaul at the time of the Eoman domination of that country, 
and, notwithstanding all the vicissitudes of political fortune 
and revolution, the people have always carried on a con- 
siderable trade in the most delicate and finest of linens and 
other textile fabrics. This branch of the trade received its 
greatest check immediately following the Revocation of 
the Edict of Nantes, 1685, when the persecution of the 
Protestants became so acute that fully 600,000 skilled 
artisans, chiefly persons engaged in the textile trades, were 
obliged to leave their native land and seek refuge on other 
shores. About 70,000 of these refugees found a home in 
Great Britain or Ireland, and just as the woollen trade of 
Great Britain was materially assisted by the influx of these 
skilled artificers, so the linen trade of Ireland received its 
greatest impetus by their advent. 

Various European Countries. — Other European countries, 
notably Holland and Belgium, carried on a large and 
important trade in linen for an extensive period. Belgium 
has always paid great attention to the cultivation of flax, 
and as far back as the tenth century/Slie began to be famous 
for the manufacture of linen goods. On a somewhat smaller 



THE LINEN INDUSTRY 343 

scale the flax plant was cultivated and linen cloth manu- 
factured in other countries, notably Portugal, Denmark, 
Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, and Kussia. 

United States of America. — The United States of America 
grows much flax, but its manufacture is, and always has 
been, comparatively small. To-day she is one of the best 
customers of Irish-made linens. There are signs, however, 
that the country is about to try the experiment of linen 
manufacturing. Recent reports intimate the erection of an 
extensive plant for same in Vermont. 

Great Britain and Ireland. 

No historical description of the flax industry would be 
complete, however brief, unless some reference were made 
to Ireland, where to-day, and for at least half a century, 
the production of flax yarns and manufacture of linens have 
stood out pre-eminently. Of necessity this industry in 
Ireland is inseparably linked to that of England and 
Scotland. In the traditional records of the " Four 
Masters " of the fifth century reference is made to " the 
weaves," " the flax scutching stick," " the distaff," etc. ; the 
inference is left to the reader. The laws of the judges in 
Ireland, known as the ancient Brehon laws, required the 
farmers to learn the cultivation of flax. 

The earliest authentic accounts of Irish linen manufacture 
date from the eleventh century, but the cloth made was only 
for home consumption, for the first exports occur in 1272, 
when it is recorded that Irish linen was used at Winchester. 
Generally speaking, England and Scotland acquired the art 
of linen manufacturing before Ireland. In 1253 Henry III. 
patronized English linens by ordering 1,000 ells for his 



344 TEXTILES 

wardrobe at Westminster. In the reign of Kichard II. and 
the year 1382 a company of linen weavers, chiefly from 
the Netherlands, was established in London. But the 
climate and soil of Ireland were better adapted to the 
cultivation and growth of flax than those of Great Britain, 
and consequently she supplied the sister island with the 
raw material. Later, about the middle of the seventeenth 
century, we learn that Ireland produced more flax and spun 
more yarn than she could weave, and as a consequence 
" The merchants of Manchester bought 'lynne yarne' from 
the Irish in great quantities, and after weaving it into cloth 
returned it to Ireland for sale." 

About the year 1670 the English Government sought by 
every means in her power to encourage the linen industry 
of Ireland in its entirety. At the same time she discouraged 
the woollen manufacture in the interests of her own manu- 
factures of the same material. The methods, however, by 
which Lord Strafford (then Lord Lieutenant of Ireland) 
sought to promote the desired end were not always of the 
nature best calculated to accomplish that for which he 
strove ; e.g., " Any farmer, weaver, or linen draper who 
manufactures flax fibre by any other mode than that 
prescribed shall be punished with the severest penalty the 
law can inflict." Naturally the people resisted the injunc- 
tion with a stubbornness that was characteristic of the 
times. During the year 1685, and resulting from the 
agitation among English woollen manufacturers, an agree- 
ment was made between the Parliaments of England and 
Ireland which imposed duties upon the exportation of Irish 
woollens, but sought in a variety of ways to- improve and 
increase the production of Irish linens. It was not, however, 



THE LINEN INDUSTRY 345 

until the seventeenth century was well advanced that the 
Irish linen trade attained any commercial importance. 
Then, owing largely to the Ulster colonists from Scotland, 
and later, the influx of the skilled French refugees, 
especially one — Louis Crommelin, a wealthy Huguenot who 
was induced to settle at Lisburn, near Belfast — the linen 
industry of Ireland made rapid progress. Crommelin, on 
the Ee vocation of the Edict of Nantes, fled first into Holland, 
where he became personally acquainted with William, 
Prince of Orange, afterwards William III. of England, by 
whose persuasion he was subsequently induced to settle in 
Ireland. Here he spared no personal expense in introducing 
improvements for developing the linen industry, notably in 
regard to the spinning wheel and the loom, and involved 
himself in an expenditure of £10,000. For these valuable 
services he received a grant of .£800 per annum, but owing 
to the death of his Eoyal patron, William III., the grant 
ceased after the second year. In the year 1712 a Eoyal 
Commission was appointed to enquire into the Irish linen 
trade, and reported that " Louis Crommelin and the 
Huguenot colony have been largely instrumental in im- 
proving and propagating the flaxen manufactures in the 
north of Ireland, and the perfection to which the same is 
brought in that part of the country is largely owing to the 
skill and industry of the said Crommelin." Crommelin's 
name, together with that of Philip de Gerard, the inventor 
of the wet-spinning process, is being still further per- 
petuated on panels in a stained-glass window devoted to 
the Textile Industries Department in the new Municipal 
Technical Institute, Belfast. 

Linen Board of Ireland. — In 1711 the English Parliament 



346 



TEXTILES 




THE LINEN INDUSTRY 347 

created and endowed a Board of Trustees of linen and 
hempen manufacturers of Ireland to further encourage and 
develop the linen industry. During its existence the Board 
expended a sum of nearly £1,750,000 sterling from Imperial 
taxation for this purpose and the erection of a Linen Hall 
in Dublin. Upon the dissolution of the Board in 1828, 
Ireland had established her proud position in the world as 
an important linen manufacturing centre, and was fast 
displacing in the markets of the world the products of other 
linen-producing countries. 

Sealing of Linens. — Among the many useful regulations 
imposed by the Linen Board was the introduction of 
an Official Seal for marking white linens before being 
exposed for sale, which resulted in a much-improved and 
superior-woven fabric. Guaranteeing as it did correctness 
of length and perfection of make, it inspired public confidence 
in all buyers of Irish linens. Subsequently the regulation 
stamp was extended to brown linens also with equally 
beneficial results. (For illustration see Fig. 78.) 

Progress in Irish Linens. — By the year 1730 the trade 
had made such progress that in one month alone Ireland 
sent to the metropolis three times the length received by 
London from the whole of Holland ; and so much did the 
linen trade of Ireland prosper that foreign manufacturers 
of linens became greatly alarmed. 

In 1689, when William III. ascended the throne, the 
export of Irish linens amounted to £12,000 ; in 1701 the 
amount reached £14,120 ; the fifth decade of the same 
century saw the total at £365,838 12s. 2d., so that in less 
than half a century the trade increased 250 per cent. If to 
this be added the export value of linen yarns for the same 



348 TEXTILES 

year the total value of linen exports reached half a million 
sterling. 

In 1742 an import duty of 2s. lOd. per web was imposed 
on all foreign linens, and a bounty of Id. per yard, later 
increased to 5d. per yard, on all British and Irish linens 
exported exceeding Is. per yard encouraged the production 
of the finer fabrics. 

Checks and Progress. — The linen trade of Ireland was not, 
however, of uninterrupted progress, for in the year 1773 
about 30,000 people emigrated to America from Ulster alone, 
owing largely to trade being so bad. Yet statistics record 
that in the year 1784 the linen exports reached nearly 
25 million yards, equal in value to about £1, 250,000 and 
twelve years later the amount was practically double in 
quantity and value. At this time the finest linen cambrics 
sold at 25 guineas a web, equal to about one guinea per yard. 

Bleaching Linens. — Besides favouring the growth of flax 
and the spinning of same, the climate of Ireland is well 
adapted for the bleaching of linens. In the early days 
this process occupied from two to three months, for it was 
accomplished by natural means in the open fields. Stealing 
linens from bleach fields was a common practice, for which 
offence capital punishment was inflicted until the end of the 
eighteenth century. Singularly enough, when capital 
punishment was abolished the evil decreased by 50 per 
cent. Prior to 1760 buttermilk was the only acid used 
for bleaching, but during that decade Dr. Fergusson, of 
Belfast, was awarded £300 for successfully applying lime 
to the bleaching process. Later, sulphuric acid, potash, 
and chloride of lime have in their turn produced great 
changes in this particular branch of the trade. 



THE LINEN INDUSTEY 349 

Modes of Exchange and Value : Eighteenth Century. — At 
this juncture it maybe interesting to briefly consider values 
and methods of exchange of the period. In the year 1776 
brown linens sold at 10^d. to lid. per yard for 8 00 . The 
weaver sold his web to a draper who usually possessed a 
bleach green ; the cost of bleaching was from 3s. to 3s. 2d. 
per web, or 90s. to £5 per thirty pieces. When fully 
bleached the draper sent his material to London, the Linen 
Hall at Dublin, or to Chester. In London seven months' 
credit was given, in Dublin two to three months, and cash 
when the fabrics were sold personally and at all the local 
fairs (see Fig. 79). Spinners were paid 3d. to M. and 
weavers lOrf. to Is. 4d. per day. The setts ranged from 
8 00 to 24 00 , and the prices paid for weaving were 8 00 , 2Jd ; 
10°°, 8%d. ; 13°°, 8frf. ; 16 00 , 9d. ; 18 00 , lOfrf. ; and 24 00 , 
Is. 7Jrf. per yard. The flax spinners were frequently 
engaged by the drapers at 10s. to 12s. per quarter, including 
board and lodging. They had to guarantee to turn off 
from five to eight hanks per week; usually an average 
spinner could spin six hanks (3,600 yards per hank) of 
72's. lea, i.e., 72 X 300 = 21,600 yards per lb. The value 
of this yarn for an 18 00 sett was worth approximately 8d. 
per hank, 4s. per lb., or lis. Id. per bundle. Belfast had 
two linen halls in which she conducted her exchanges, viz., 
the Brown Linen Hall in Donegall Street, originally built by 
Lord Donegall, and the White Linen Hall, originally built 
by subscription in Donegall Square, but now replaced by 
the magnificent City Hall. 

Spinning and Weaving by Machinery. — The introduction 
of spinning and weaving by power, though difficult at first, 
gradually displaced to a considerable extent the hand method, 



350 



TEXTILES 




THE LINEN INDUSTRY 



:J51 



and also centralised the work in mills and factories. The 
spinning of flax by machinery was attempted in Great 
Britain fully a decade previous to any similar experiment 
in Ireland, notwithstanding that the latter country had 
acquired a considerable reputation for flax spinning. At 




Fig. 80.— Loading flax. 
From a photograph, by A. F. Barker. 

first it was only possible to produce by machinery the 
coarser and lower dry spun numbers of yarn. The first 
machines for this purpose were started in Cork, and later 
at Ballymena and Crumlin, in county Antrim, about the 
year 1787. The Irish Linen Board, which at that time 
was still in existence, sought to encourage the enterprise 



352 TEXTILES 

by offering 30s. per spindle to the owners of all mills 
who introduced the power method, and by the year 1816 
there were 6,369 spindles at work. The hand-spinning 
method for the finer yarns would, in all probability, have 
continued to this day but for the discovery of the wet- 




Eig. 81. — Betting flax : putting flax in dam. 
From a photograph by .1. /''. Barker. 

spinning process by Philip de Gerard, of France, about 
the year 1826. This process was subsequently and success- 
fully applied by Marshalls of Leeds, Baxter of Dundee, 
Mulholland of Belfast, and Murland of Castlewellan. In 
the year 1828 Messrs. Murland started the enterprise, and 
in the year following Messrs. Mulholland, now the York 



THE LINEN INDUSTRY 3,3:3 

Street Flax Spinning Mills, Belfast, adopted the new pro- 
cess, whereby it became possible, with the use of hot water, 
to soften the gummy matter which holds the flax fibres 
together, and reduce them to their ultimate length and 
fineness, and so to draw and spin them into yarn of a 




Fig. 82.— Retting flax : taking flax out of dam after, say, ten days. 
From a photograph by A. F. Barker. 

much greater length and fineness than by the dry-spinning 
process. Undoubtedly the discovery and practical applica- 
tion of same thoroughly revolutionised the spinning, and 
eventually exerted an immense influence over the weaving, 
by causing a greater demand for power looms. Ireland 
now began more rapidly than ever to acquire the lead over 

T. A A 



354 



TEXTILES 



foreign linen-producing countries in the markets of the 
world ; and Belfast, the centre of the Irish linen trade, not 
only maintained, but increased her proud position among 
the manufacturing centres, whilst to-day she ranks as both 




Fig. S3.— Elax drying. — Stack after retting. 
From a photograph by A. F. Barker. 

the industrial capital of Ireland and the metropolis of the 
world's linen industrial centres. 

Statistics do not show any considerable adoption of power 
looms prior to 1850, but the following abbreviated table 
will give some idea of the development in the spinning and 
weaving of linen throughout the country since the advent 
of machinery : — 



THE LINEN INDTJSTEY 



355 



Year. 


Number of Spindles in 


Number of Power 


Ireland. 


Looms. 


1841 


250,000 


_ 


1850 


326,000 


58 


1856 


567,980 


1,871 


1866 


770,814 


10,804 


1875 


924,817 


20,152 


1900 


843,934 


32,245 


1906 


869,146 


34,723 


1907 


909,999 


35,386 


1908 


913,423 


35,386 


Feb., 1910 


939,732 


35,622 



The following comparative and latest official returns of 
spindles and power looms engaged in the linen industry in 
the United Kingdom and on the Continent will no doubt 
be interesting : — 



Country. 


Number of 


Number of Power 


Spindles. 


Looms. 


Ireland .... 


939,732 


35,622 


France 




545,497 


18,083 


Scotland . 




160,085 


17,185 


Germany . 




325,000 


7,557 


Eussia 




300,000 


7,312 


England and Wales 




49,941 


4,424 


Italy . 




1 77,000 


3,500 


Belgium . 




1 280,000 


3,400 


Austria-Hungary 




294,000 


3,357 


Holland 




8,000 


1,200 


Spain 




— 


1,000 


Norway and Sweden 




— 


406 


2 Total for Europe 


1,829,497 


43,815 


, , United Kingdom 


1,120,025 


56,995 



1 Flax and hemp. 2 Exclusive of the U. K. 

The volume of linen yam exported from the United 
Kingdom in 1906 reached the enormous total of 

AA 2 



356 



TEXTILES 



14,975,500 lbs., bearing a monetary value of £1,008,831. 
In the year 1840 the respective totals were 28,734,212 lbs. 
and £1,976,830, from which date there has been a gradual 




Fig. 84. — Elax spreading. 
From a photograph by A. F. Barker. 

decline as far as yarn exported was concerned, but an 
ever-increasing demand for home j>roductions. The average 
annual imports of linen yarn into the United Kingdom 



THE LINEN INDUSTEY 



357 



during the last decade reached 26,311,329 lbs. of declared 
value £933,426. These yarns are chiefly of the lower 
numbers. The linen goods of all kinds exported for the year 
1906 amounted in value to £5, 326, 744, whilst the total value 
ot linen yarns, threads, and piece goods reached ,£6,341,216. 



ifflrafi ,11 




L JH 




Wl^,5^ 




1 ^^*j['« tjii 




1" iO.il' -mHb^WM ^J 

rrr>1 


SHI ' 1 



Eig. 85. — Inside an Irish. Scutching Mill. 
From a photograph by A. F. Barker. 

These summarised Board of Trade returns, together 
with the large amount of linen used for home consump- 
tion, added to the fact that nearly 250,000 people in Great 
Britain and Ireland are exclusively engaged in the growth 
of flax, the preparation and spinning of long vegetable fibres 



358 TEXTILES 

(flax, hemp, and jute), the manufacture and merchanting 
of linen yarns and fabrics, will afford some idea of the com- 
mercial importance to which this industry has now attained. 
Linen Varieties. — The varieties of fabrics made from flax 
in respect to structure, design, quality, and finish is much 




Fig. 86.— Inside an Irish Scutching Mill. 
From a photograph by A. F. Barker. 

greater to-day than formerly. These include plains, ducks, 
hollands, lawns, sheer lawns, cambrics, handkerchiefs, 
dress linens, and unions in an ever-increasing novelty, 
vestings, glass cloths, drills and diapers, huckabacks, honey- 
comb and Turkish towels, d'oyleys, napkins, and damasks. 
The world-renowned cambrics were first made at Cambrai, 



THE LINEN INDUSTRY 359 

in France, and the same country was famous for the 
initiation and manufacture of lawns, while the town of 
Ypres, in Belgium, became noted for the manufacture of 
linen known as diaper — cloth de Ypres — and " holland " 
received its name through having been first manufactured 
by the Dutch settlers in Ireland. Napkins were introduced 
for wiping the hands, being all the more necessary owing 
to the lack of knives and forks at the time. For long 
periods these and other standard fabrics have been and 
probably will continue to be made, but the time has gone 
when the demand runs on one particular make or type 
of cloth to the exclusion of every other, which necessarily 
involves that the manufacturer who would succeed must 
learn to adapt himself to modern ideas and ever-changing 
fashions. No linen or other manufacturer can afford to 
stand still ; to do so would be to drop out. In conclusion, 
every manufacturing industry which is to obtain and main- 
tain a position in the commercial world worthy of the 
name must seek to educate its workpeople by giving them 
a progressive course of instruction in the scientific and 
technical principles underlying their trade ; for success now 
depends on scientific knowledge, research, and an intimate 
acquaintance with the inventions, the experiments, the 
successes and the failures of others ; and whether our nation 
does or does not provide every facility in this direction, 
we may rest assured that textile production will continue 
its progressive course, and will be led by those who have 
made themselves capable of leading by adapted thought 
and knowledge, combined with enlightened energy, which 
directs its force to meet the vast and varied requirements 
of the world. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS AND THE FUTURE OF THE TEXTILE 
INDUSTRIES 

Although nearly all the principles employed in textile 
machinery were in use, say, hy 1850, still with what may 
be termed the refined organization of the twentieth century 
there have been, and apparently will always be, opportunities 
for the improvement in so-called " details," which details 
are nevertheless so important that the status of the whole 
industry may depend upon them. 

With reference to the treatment of raw materials perhaps 
the most noticeable development has been in the handling 
and in the carrying forward of the material by conveyors 
from one machine or room to the next machine or room. 

Within the last twenty years wool scouring with the 
volatile agents has become a practical fact, but, curious to 
relate, has only become established where it has been neces- 
sary to scour large quantities of wool in a rough-and-ready 
manner, noticeably in the United States. 

In the preparatory processes the chief advance has been 
in the accuracy in workmanship put into most machines, 
noticeably into cotton combs and wool combs. Heil- 
mann's comb, after being suppressed in the wool trade for 
fifty years, is again making its appearance, and is likely 
to prove a marked success for certain styles of work. 



FUTUEE OF THE TEXTILE INDUSTRIES 361 

Noble's comb, which for the last forty years has been 
placed on the market with two inner circles, is now being 
made with three and four, and these additional circles, 
with a new pressing-in motion taking the place of the old 
dabbing-brush, are resulting in double the work being 
done. More positive machines— particularly cone drawing 
and roving — appear to be taking the place of the go-as- 
you-please machines; while in the Bradford district white 
yarns on the French mule- spun system are now being 
produced in quantity, and it seems more than probable 
that in the near future coloured yarns will also be similarly 
produced, so that Bradford designers will be able to compete 
in the soft-coloured French styles. 

In spinning, the only marked advance made — notwith- 
standing the trial of many hybrid machines — apj)ears to 
be in the direction of a frame to take the place of the 
woollen mule. Messrs. Piatt Bros., of Oldham, now make 
a frame of this type which will apparently do the work, so 
that it is now simply a question of the initial expense and 
cost of up-keep and running. A development of which more 
is likely to be heard in the future, is in the direction of 
self -doffing motions for spinning frames. With the sup- 
pression of the "half-timer" and the scarcity of "full- 
timers " the difficulties of running spindles in both York- 
shire and Lancashire are daily increasing. To take the 
place of " doffers" several mechanisms have been patented 
for application to both flyer, cap, and ring frames. The 
only two successful inventions up to the present, however, 
are those of Messrs. Clough, of Keighley, and H. Arnold- 
Forster, of Burley-in-Wharfedale, both being applied to 
the flyer frame. The former is said to yield 15 per cent, 



362 TEXTILES 

more turn-off, and so may be regarded as an advantage, 
irrespective of labour scarcity ; while the latter, although 
still on trial, is giving evidence of a similar saving being 
effected. Of course, such frames take more following from 
the overlooking point of view, so that the advantages and 
disadvantages should be very carefully considered. 1 

In warping, sizing, dressing, etc., one or two develop- 
ments are to be noted. The old upright warping mill, 
owing to its tendency to produce a repeating defect in 
certain goods, is being rapidly displaced by the Scotch or 
horizontal warping mill in the coating trade and by the 
warper's beam system for the dress-goods trade. A 
marked development of sizing single botany warps directly 
on to the loom beam is to be noted, such fine counts as 1-50's 
and 1-60's botany being so dressed and successfully woven. 
The Barber warp knotter may be specially noted as a 
wonderful machine. It is employed with perfect success 
in tying-in plain warps into gears, working at the rate of 
250 knots per minute. Unfortunately, it is not sufficiently 
reliable for fancy coloured styles, where an odd thread 
wrongly tied would throw the whole pattern out. 

Perhaps reference should here be made to the develop- 
ment in warp mercerizing in preference to hank mer- 
cerizing to ensure evenness in result. Weft yarns are 
thus warped, mercerized in warp form, and re-wound end by 
end, the superior result in evenness in subsequent dyeing 
amply compensating for the additional expense. 

1 Between writing and publishing the above, Cap Doffing has become 
an accomplished fact, Messrs. Hall and Still, of Keighley, having 
made a number of these frames for millg both at home and abroad. 
As in the case of the Flyer Doffer, there are secondary advantages of 
almost prime importance. 



FUTURE OF THE TEXTILE INDUSTRIES 363 

In weaving machinery two developments are taking 
place, the one contending against the other. In the first 
case, the automatic or self- shuttling or spooling loom — 
invented in this country, but developed in the United 
States — is making rapid headway in the plain cotton trade, 
and is being seriously tried in the stuff trade. Against 
this certain Yorkshire and Lancashire loom-makers 
(especially Mr. Kobert Pickles, of Burnley) are ranging 
specially-built and speeded-up looms of the ordinary type. 
In the cotton trade, in which broken picks matters little, 
the automatic loom is already a success, but the extent to 
which it can supersede the ordinary well designed and 
timed loom where perfect weaving is required is still un- 
defined. In this case, as with the automatic doffer, it is 
possibly already demonstrated that, irrespective of the 
shortage of labour, there is an advantage under certain 
conditions. With the labour shortage it is more than 
probable that automatic looms will come more and more 
into use, as it is claimed that a weaver and one or two 
tenters can keep twenty-four of these looms going on 
standard cotton goods. For stuffs and worsteds the looms 
are necessarily broader and the number to a weaver is 
much smaller. Broken picks are inadmissible, and until 
recently no feeling action to bring into play the bobbin- 
changing mechanism to obviate broken picks has been 
satisfactory, the best resulting in a waste of about 5 to 10 
per cent. The Arlington mills, U.S.A., however, are now 
employing a split bobbin indicator, in which the weft holds 
the bobbin together until the last two or three layers, on 
reaching which the pressure from the inside opens the 
bobbin slightly, and this in turn brings into play the 



364 TEXTILES 

bobbin-changing mechanism. With this mechanism the 
waste has been reduced to 2 per cent. 

Automatic looms are usually provided with a warp-stop 
motion in addition to a weft-stop motion and shuttle-box 
swell and stop-rod mechanisms. Several types of these 
motions, chiefly electrical, seem satisfactory for long 
warps, but probably none pay for short warps, as the 
initial cost is considerable and the cost of resetting on a 
new warp not inconsiderable. 

In designing and cloth construction the chief advance 
made has been in designing single-yarn soft-goods styles 
such as Amazons, nuns' veiling, etc., and in producing soft 
lightly-twisted mohair goods by twisting the mohair with 
cotton for weaving purposes, and then extracting the cotton 
in tbe finishing operation, leaving the mohair everything that 
can be desired as to lustre, softness, lightness, etc. Within 
the past ten years some remarkable endeavours have been 
made to simplify and accelerate designing methods, notably 
in the " Designograph " of Mr. Mackintosh, "Photo- 
graphic Designing" of M. Szczepanik and "Electric 
Card-cutting " by Messrs. Szczepanik and Zerkowitz. 
Unfortunately, in no single instance has any lasting 
impression been produced on the methods in vogue 
for the production of textile designs. Again, so far 
as jacquards are concerned, the medium pitch and the 
Verdol, or fine pitch machines, are undoubtedly making 
headway, especially on the Continent. These, however, 
involve no change in principle. The Carver electric 
jacquard, however, is very different from the ordinary 
jacquard, and for pure reversibles x may prove a success. 
It is being tried in Ireland at the present moment for 



PUTUEE OF THE TEXTILE INDUSTEIES 365 

the production of standard linen fabrics of elaborate floral 
design. 

So far as finishing is concerned the greatest advances 
have been made in finishing mercerized and soft French 
goods, chiefly on the initiative of the Bradford Dyers' 
Association. Fabrics have been built up from mercerized 
cotton, specially to stand and show to advantage the 
Schreinering process with truly remarkable results, certain 
black goods being almost undistinguishable from fine 
satin goods made of the best organzine silk. So far as 
the French goods are concerned, the better grades are now 
being woven and finished in Bradford in bulk, but in the 
lower grades the French manufacturers and finishers still 
lead. 

In the design and construction of spinning, weaving, and 
finishing mills and sheds steady advance has been made. 
New mills and sheds are so designed that, as a rule, they 
are admirably adapted for the particular purpose in view. 
Two advances, however, claim more than passing comment. 
These are "electric driving" and "lighting." The 
mechanical drive is so fully understood and developed that 
to say the least, the electrical drive advocates have " a hard 
nut to crack." At the present, taking everything into 
account, electric driving seems to cost at least half as much 
again as mechanical driving ; but the electrical men are so 
strenuously endeavouring to bring down the price of 
electricity that the situation, to say the least, is interesting. 
Of course, there are many cases where an electric drive is 
obviously the best drive, and even if electricity does not 
supersede the steam engine in large works, it will obviously 
be more and more employed in the small concerns which 
day by day are springing up. In lighting, again, electricity 



366 TEXTILES 

is held by gas-lighting in various forms, 1 expense and 
deterioration of light being the difficulties. Two special 
electric lights are, however, making marked headway, viz., 
two forms of colour-correct light and the inverted arc 
light. The first weaving shed has just been lighted by 
the colour-correct light, while the value of the inverted arc 
light in suppressing shadows makes it specially useful in 
sheds and rooms sufficiently high, and in which specially 
high machinery is not installed. Incandescent gas-light- 
ing has proved so successful in the past that it is not likely 
to recede in usefulness in the future. Gas-lighting under 
pressure, however, is the latest development which appears 
to be making headway. This section would not be complete 
without reference to the attempts made to control the 
atmosphere in our spinning and weaving sheds. Our 
climate is so equitable that it is still questionable whether 
marked advantages accrue from the adopting of humidify- 
ing, ventilating and heating systems ; but in other countries 
less fortunately situated the extremes of heat and cold, in 
summer and winter respectively, must be corrected. Upon 
the whole, for reasons which cannot be elaborated here, it 
is probable that even our favourable natural condition may 
be controlled and modified to considerable advantage. 

In all branches of the industry, from the raw materials 
room to the counting-house, labour-saving contrivances are 
continually being introduced, principally from the United 
States. Day by day the industry becomes more complex 
and more difficult to grasp. In the past men might keep 
their accounts in their heads and leave their million of 
money, but in the future very different methods must 
prevail. Scientific method — deliberate intent, not casual 
1 The Keith Pressure System is one of the best of these. ' 



FUTURE OF THE TEXTILE INDUSTRIES 



367 



acquaintance and drift — will be absolutely necessary in the 
near future in both acquiring the knowledge of and direct- 
ing a business. Unless we are prepared to admit this and 
live up to it we must be prepared to see our strenuous 
present-day friends of the East, the Japanese (and probably 
the Chinese), with their freshness and directness, reap the 
benefit of our experience, simply because we shall be 
unable to reap it ourselves. The great question for us at 
the present time is not "Do we believe in technical educa- 
tion?" but " Do we feel and realize the complexities of 
modern conditions and the consequent necessity for 
scientific method ? " If we once feel this technical education 
will be accepted without question, and instituted not in a 
half-hearted way on necessarily inefficient lines, but rather 
on a generous scale to enable the rising generation to grasp 
the helm, not to be tossed about at the mercy of wind and 

tide. 

The Flax Supply. 





Irish 
Production. 


Imports. 


Exports. 


Net 
Supply. 




Tons. 


1896 


10,844 


36,650 


4,565 


42,929 


1897 


6,818 


37,715 


4,446 


40,087 


1898 


6,281 


34,440 


3,634 


37,087 


1899 


6,743 


40,145 


3,438 


43,450 


1900 


9,479 


31,563 


3,789 


37,253 


1901 


12,797 


28,785 


3,839 


37,743 


1902 


10,975 


29,727 


4,129 


36,573 


1903 


8,064 


38,168 


3,487 


42,745 


1904 


8,069 


33,024 


3,446 


37,647 


1905 


10,073 


40,063 


2,771 


47,365 


1906 


11,812 


37,332 


3,276 


45,868 


1907 


11,571 


46,201 


3,845 


53,927 


1908 


8,421 


32,511 


4,242 


36,690 


1909 


7,565 


42,828 


4,587 


45,806 



368 



TEXTILES 
Woeld's Production of Cotton. 







Per cent, of 




Bales. 


Total 
Production. 


United States 


10,882,385 


659 


British India 






2,444,800 


14-8 


Egypt 






1,296,000 


7-8 


Russia 








620,000 


3-8 


China . 








428,000 


2-6 


Brazil 








370,000 


2-2 


Mexico 








85,000 


0-5 


Peru . 








55,000 


0-3 


Turkey 








80,000 


0-5 


Persia 








51,000 


0-3 


Other Countries 






200,000 


1-3 



The world's commercial production of the last five years 
has been :— 





Bales. 




Bales. 


1904 . 


. 18,803,000 


1907 . 


. 16,512,185 


1905 . 


. 15,747,000 


1908 . 


. 19,120,420 


1906 . 


. 19,942,000 







New Sources of Cotton Supply. 

Estimated Cotton Production in Other Countries. 
(In thousands of bales.) 



Country. 


1907—8. 


1906-7. 


1905-6. 


Japan ..... 


15 


35 


20 


Korea ..... 


70 


50 


70 


China ..... 


1,000 


800 


750 


Indo- China 


15 


15 


20 


Dutch East Indies . . . 


12 


13 


15 


Philippines .... 


6 


6 


6 


Asiatic Russia, Turkestan 


750/ 


675 


612 


Persia ..... 


80 


60 


50 



FUTURE OF THE TEXTILE INDUSTRIES 



369 



New Soukcbs of Cotton Supply — -continued. 

Estimated Cotton Production in Other Countries — continued. 
(In thousands of bales.) 



Country. 


1907—8. 


1900— 7. 


1905—0. 


Asia Minor .... 


125 


85 


100 


TurKey 


5 


8 


8 


Cyprus ..... 


1 


2 


1 


Greece ..... 


15 


10 


10 


Italy 


5 


3 


10 


Africa, French 


2 


1 


'5 


,, East and Central 


7 


6 


6 


„ West .- 


50 


12 


12 


,, Sudan 


6 


19 


15 


Australia and New Zealand . 


1 


— 


•2 


Pacific Islands 


— 


— . 


•2 


Peru ..... 


110 


70 


90 


Chili . . .... 


— 


1 


5 


Argentina .... 


2 


1 


1 


Colombia and Venezuela 


10 


5 


1 


British West Indies 


15 


11 


6 


Hkyti 


10 


7 


10 


Mexico ..... 


90 


ISO 


250 


Total (estimated) . 


2,402 


2,075 


2,069 



Below are the figures of the cotton crops for the 
countries named for the two seasons particularized : — 



Country. 


1907— 190S. 


1900—191)7. 


American (United States) 
Brazilian .... 
Egyptian .... 


11,572,000 

2,867,000 

964,622 


13,511,000 
926,636 




1907. 


1906. 


East Indian 


4,880,000 


4,435,000 



B B 



INDEX 



Aniline black, 69 
Animal fibres, methods of pre- 
paring, 119 
Artificial silk, 59—62 

,, ,, dyeing properties 

of, 62, 82 
Australian wool, 22 
Average weaving, 156, 157 



B. 



Backed and double cloths, 181 
Backwasher, 133 
Beating-up, 165 
Bengal silk, 293 
Bleaching cotton, 75 
,, linen, 348 

" Boiling-off " silk, 75 
Boxing mechanism, 166 
Brushing and raising, 199 



(J. 

Calculations, 205, 219 
Calendering, 201 
Canton silk, 294 
Carder, 139 



Carding, 9 

Card rollers, speeds of, 141 

Cape wool, 24 

Cap frame, 12, 101 

Carpet industry, 256 

,, ,, location of, 263 

,, structure, 258 — 262 
China-grass or Bamie spinning, 

126 
China silk, 295 

Colonial and foreign wool, impor- 
tation of, 20 
Colour matching, 82 
Colouring and designing, 172, 

188 
Comb, 145 

Combers of wool, 235 
Combing, 11 
Conditioning, 201 
Cone drawing-box, 149 
Cotton dyeing, 78 — 80 

,, fabrics, finishing of, 203 

,, gin, 128 

,, industry, the, 34, 320 

,, ,, cost and pro- 

duction, 323 

,, ,, improvements 

in, 326 

,, ,, plan of mill, 

332 

,, ,, wages, 324 



372 



INDEX 



Cotton mercerized, 55 — 59 

,, processes, 334 

,, scutcher, 132 

,, staples, 35 — 38 
Crabbing, 195 
Crepon effects, 58 
" Croissure " systems, 275, 276, 

277 
Cropping or cutting, 199 

D. 

Designing, 172 
Developments, recent, 360 
Dobby loom, 7, 163, 170 
Drawing-box, cone, 149 

,, French, 153 
,, ,, open, 149 

Dress goods, 246 

,, ,, finishing processes 

for, 253 
,, ,, industry, location of, 

250 
Dresser, the silk and flax, 143 
Dryer, the wool, 130 
Drying, after- finishing, 197 
Dyeing, piece, 77, 197 
silk, 81 
,, slubbing, 76 
,, union, 80, 81 
, . water used in, 72 
,, wool, 75 — 78 
,, yarn, 77 , 

Dyers, 235 
Dyes, fastness of, 83 
Dyestuffs, 65 

E. 
Electric JacquarJ, 12 



Evolution of linen industry, 338 
,, ,, sheep, 20 

,, ,, textile industries, 4 



F. 



Factory system, 14 
Felt fabrics, 2 

Fibres, chemical and physical 
properties, 48 — 54 
,, vegetable, 42 — 45 
,, ,, diameter of, 

46 
Figure designing, 191 
Filling cloths, 201 
Finishers, 235 
Finishing, cottons, 202, 203 
linens, 202, 203 
linings, 202, 203 
,, principles of, 192 

silks, 202, 203 
woollen cloth, 202, 203 
,, worsted cloth, 202, 203 

Flax-growing industry, 40 
Frame, cap, 12, 101 
ring, 12, 99 
,, water, 8, 95 
French comb, 360 

,, drawing-box, 153 
,, gill-box, 137 



a. 

GrATJZE fabrics, 178, 182—185 
Gill-box, French, 137 

yf, preparing, 135 
Group-unit weaving, 157 



INDEX 



373 



H. 

Hairs, animal, 24- 27 
,, vegetable, 42 — 45 



Ingrain dyes, 71 
Intejflacings, 175 



Jacquard loom, 164, 171 
Japan silks, 294 

IT. 

Kashmir silk, 291 



Letting -off motion, 166 
Linen industry, 336 

,, sealing of, 347 

,, varieties of, 358 
Linings, 246 
Lists referring to cotton industry, 

368, 369 
Lists referring to linen industry, 

355 
Lists referring to silk industry, 

268—272, 299—319 
Lists referring to wool industry, 

242—245 
Location of carpet industry, 263 
,, ,, dress goods industry, 

250 
,, ,, woollen industry, 224 
Long fibre spinning, 86 



M. 

Materials, use of, in design, 174 

Melton cloth, 229 

Mending, 194 

Merchants, 238 

Metric system, 218 

Milling, 195 

Mordants, 64 

Mule-frame, 112 

Mule spinning, 105 — 111 

N. 

Native reels (silks), 296 
New Zealand wool, 23 
Noils, 28 



0. 



Open Drawing, 149 

Order of processes in woollen 

manufacture, 230 
Ordinary cloth structure, 180 



Para red, 71 
Picking, 165 

Plush or pile fabrics, 179, 186 
Point-paper, 185 
Pressing, 200 
Primuline red, 71 
Progress in Irish linen nianu- 
. facture, 347 

E. 

Ramie spinning, 126 
Re-reels (silks), 295 



374 



INDEX 



Besultant counts of yarn, 210, 

214, 215 
Eib, warp and weft structures, 

180 
E oiler draft, 6, 90—99 



S. , 

Schreinee finish, 58, 201 
Scouring, 194 

,, machine, 128 
Scutcher, cotton, 130 

„ , flax, 132 
Set counting, 213 
Sets of woollen machinery, 225 
,, worsted machinery, 238 

237—242 
Shedding, 161 
Shoddy, 27 

Silk, classification of, 299—319 
Silk-growing industry, 32 
Silk, preparation, 123 
reeling, 290 

spinning mills, 283—286 
throwing and spinning, 266 
tussah, 294 

yarns, imperfections in, 278 
—281 
Singeing, 200 
Sizers, 235 

South American wools, 24 
Spindle-draft, 6 
Spinners, 235 
Spinning, long fibre, 86 

short fibre, 104 
Spooling or shuttling mechanism, 

169 
Staples, wools, hairs, cottons, 23, 
35—48 



Steaming, 196 
Stop-rod mechanism, 167 
Stuffs, 246 
Sulphide dyes, 70 
Syrian, etc., silks, 291 



T. 

Tapestry industry, 256 

structure, 258—262 
Tappet loom, 162, 170 
Tentering, 198 

Test for mercerized cotton, 58 
Turkey red, 71 



U. 

Union cloths, 5S 
United States wool, 24 



V. 

Vegetable fibres, 42 — 45 

,, ,, diameters of, 

46 
,, ,, methods of 

prepara- 
tion, 117 
,, hairs, 42 — 45 



W. 

Warpers, 235 
Wajp-stop mechanism, 168 
Washing- off, 197 



INDEX 



010 



Waterproofing, 202 
Water used in dyeing, 72 
Weaving movements, 160 

,, principles of, 154 

Welt-fork mechanism, 168 
Weights of cloths, 215 
Witch, 7 

Wool-buyers, 235 
Wo#l comb, genesis of, 13 

,, scouring, 74 

„ tables, 29—32, 242—245 
Woollen industry, 223 



Woollen method of preparation, 

120 
Worsted industry, 232 

,, method of preparation, 
121—123 



Y. 

Tarns, counting of, 208—209 
,, resultant count, 210, 214, 
215 



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THE "WESTMINSTER" SERIES 

Coal. By James Tonge, M.I.M.E., F.G.S., etc. (Lecturer 
on Mining at Victoria University, Manchester). With 
46 Illustrations, many of them showing the Fossils found 
in the Coal Measures. 
List of Contents : History. Occurrence. Mode of Formation 
of Coal Seams. Fossils of the Coal Measures. Botany of the 
Coal-Measure Plants. Coalfields of the British Isles. Foreign 
Coalfields. The Classification of Coals. The Valuation of Coal. 
Foreign Coals and their Values. Uses of Coal. The Production 
of Heat from Coal. Waste of Coal. The Preparation of Coal 
for the Market. Coaling Stations of the World. Index. 

This book on a momentous subject is provided for the general 
reader who wishes accurate knowledge of Coal, its origin, position 
and extent, and its economical utilization and application. 

Iron and Steel. By J. H. Stansbie, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C. 
With 86 Illustrations. 
List of Contents : Introductory. Iron Ores. Combustible and 
other materials used in Iron and Steel Manufacture. Primitive 
Methods of Iron and Steel Production. Pig Iron and its Manu- 
facture. The Refining of Pig Iron in Small Charges. Crucible 
and Weld Steel. The Bessemer Process. The Open Hearth 
Process. Mechanical Treatment of Iron and Steel. Physical 
and Mechanical Properties of Iron and Steel. Iron and Steel 
under the Microscope. Heat Treatment of Iron and Steel. Elec- 
tric Smelting. Special Steels. Index. 
The aim of this book is to give a comprehensive view of the modern 
aspects of iron and steel, together with a sufficient account of its his- 
tory to enable the reader to follow its march of progress. The methods 
of producing varieties of the metal suitable to the requirements of 
the engineer, foundryman and mechanician are described so that the 
worker may learn the history of the material he is handling. 

Natural Sources of Power. By Robert S. Ball, B.Sc, 
A.M.Inst.C.E. With 104 Diagrams and Illustrations. 
Contents : Preface. Units with Metric Equivalents and Abbre- 
viations. Length and Distance. Surface and Area. Volumes. 
Weights or Measures. Pressures. Linear Velocities, Angular 
Velocities. Acceleration. Energy. Power. Introductory 
Water Power and Methods of Measuring. Application of Water 
Power to the Propulsion of Machinery. The Hydraulic Turbine. 
Various Types of Turbine. Construction of Water Power Plants. 
Water Power Installations. The Regulation of Turbines. Wind 
Pressure, Velocity, and Methods of Measuring. The Application 
of Wind Power to Industry. The Modern Windmill. Con- 
structional Details. Power of Modern Windmills. Appendices 
A,B,C Index. 
Two departments of Engineering and their applications to industry 

form the subject of this volume : the " natural " sources of water 

( 2 ) 



THE " WESTMINSTER " SERIES 

and wind power which supply mechanical energy without any inter- 
mediate stage of transformation. Most people will be surprised at 
the extent to which these natural power producers are used. The 
widespread application of water power is generally known, but it is 
interesting to learn that the demand for windmills was never so great 
as it is to-day, and there are signs of abnormal expansion in the direc- 
tion of their useful application in the great agricultural countries of 
the world. Though primarily of importance to the engineer, this work 
will he of great interest to every manufacturer who in economizing 
his means of power production can take the natural forces that lie 
to his hand and harness them in his service. The author is the son 
of Sir Robert Ball, the eminent mathematician and astronomer. 

Liquid and Gaseous Fuels, and the Part they play- 
in Modern Power Production. By Professor 
Vivian B. Lewes, F.I.C., F.C.S., Prof, of Chemistry, 
Royal Naval College, Greenwich. With 54 Illustrations. 

List of Contents : Lavoisier's Discovery of the Nature of Com- 
bustion, etc. The Cycle of Animal and Vegetable Life. Method 
of determining Calorific Value. The Discovery of Petroleum 
in America. Oil Lamps, etc. The History of Coal Gas. Calorific 
Value of Coal Gas and its Constituents. The History of Water 
Gas. Incomplete Combustion. Comparison of the Thermal 
Values of our Fuels, etc. Appendix. Bibliography. Index. 

The subject of this book has, during the last decade, assumed such 
importance that it is hoped this account of the history and develop- 
ment of the use of various forms of combustible liquids and gases 
for the generation of energy may do some service in its advancement. 

Electric Power and Traction. By F. H. Davies, 
A.M.I.E.E. With 66 Illustrations. 

List of Contents : Introduction. The Generation and Distri- 
bution of Power. The Electric Motor. The Application of 
Electric Power. Electric Power in Collieries. Electric Power 
in Engineering Workshops. Electric Power in Textile Factories. 
Electric Power in the Printing Trade. Electric Power at Sea. 
Electric Power on Canals. Electric Traction. The Overhead 
System and Track Work. The Conduit System. The Surface 
Contact System. Car Building and Equipment. Electric Rail- 
ways. Glossary. Index. 

The majority of the allied trades that cluster round the business of 
electrical engineering are connected in some way or other with its power 
and traction branches. To members of such trades and callings, to 
whom some knowledge of applied electrical engineering is desirable 
if not strictly essential, the book is particularly intended to appeal. 
It deals almost entirely with practical matters, and enters to some 
extent into those commercial considerations which in the long run 
must overrule all others. 

(3 ) 



THE " WESTMINSTER " SERIES 

Town Gas and its Uses for the Production of 
Light, Heat, and Motive Power. By W. H. Y. 
Webber, C.E. With 71 Illustrations. 

List of Contents : The Nature and Properties of Town Gas. The 
History and Manufacture of Town Gas. The Bye-Products of 
Coal Gas Manufacture. Gas Lights and Lighting. Practical 
Gas Lighting. The Cost of Gas Lighting. Heating and Warm- 
ing by Gas. Cooking by Gas. The Healthfulness and Safety 
of Gas in all its uses. Town Gas for Power Generation, including 
Private Electricity Supply. The Legal Relations of Gas Sup- 
pliers, Consumers, and the Public. Index. 
The " country," as opposed to the " town," has been defined "as 
" the parts beyond the gas lamps." This book provides accurate 
knowledge regarding the manufacture and supply of town gas and its 
uses for domestic and industrial purposes. Few people realize the 
extent to which this great industry can be utilized. The author has 
produced a volume which will instruct and interest the generally well 
informed but not technically instructed reader. 

Electro-Metallurgy. By J. B. C. Kershaw, F.I.C. With 
61 Illustrations. 

Contents : Introduction and Historical Survey. Aluminium. 
Production. Details of Processes and Works. Costs. Utiliza- 
tion. Future of the Metal. Bullion and Gold. Silver Refining 
Process. Gold Refining Processes. Gold Extraction Processes. 
Calcium Carbide and Acetylene Gas. The Carbide Furnace and 
Process. Production. Utilization. Carborundum. Details of 
Manufacture. Properties and Uses. Copper. Copper Refin- 
ing. Descriptions of Refineries. Costs. Properties and Utiliza- 
tion. The Elmore and similar Processes. Electrolytic Extrac- 
tion Processes. Electro-Metallurgical Concentration Processes. 
Ferro-alloys. Descriptions of Works. Utilization. Glass and 
Quartz Glass. Graphite. Details of Process. Utilization. Iron 
and Steel. Descriptions of Furnaces and Processes. Yields and 
Costs. Comparative Costs. Lead. The Salom Process. The Betts 
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cesses. Miscellaneous Products. Calcium. Carbon Bisulphide. 
Carbon Tetra-Chloride. Diamantine. Magnesium. Phosphorus. 
Silicon and its Compounds. Nickel. Wet Processes. Dry 
Processes. Sodium. Descriptions of Cells and Processes. Tin. 
Alkaline Processes for Tin Stripping. Acid Processes for Tin 
Stripping. Salt Processes for Tin Stripping. Zinc. Wet Pro- 
cesses. Dry Processes. Electro-Thermal Processes. Electro- 
Galvanizing. Glossary. Name Index. 

The subject of this volume, the branch of metallurgy which deals 
with the extraction and refining of metals by aid of electricity, is 
becoming of great importance. The author gives a brief and clear 
account of the industrial developments of electro-metallurgy, in lan- 
guage that can be understood by those whose acquaintance with either 

( 4 ) 



THE "WESTMINSTER" SERIES 



chemical or electrical science may be but slight. It is a thoroughly 
practical work descriptive of apparatus and processes, and commends 
itself to all practical men engaged in metallurgical operations, as well 
as to business men, financiers, and investors. 

Radio-Telegraphy, By C. C. F. Monckton, M.I.E.E. 
With 173 Diagrams and Illustrations. 

Cctntents : Preface. Electric Phenomena. Electric Vibrations. 
Electro-Magnetic Waves. Modified Hertz Waves used in Radio- 
Telegraphy. Apparatus used for Charging the Oscillator. The 
Electric Oscillator : Methods of Arrangement, Practical Details. 
The Receiver : Methods of Arrangement, The Detecting Ap- 
paratus, and other details. Measurements in Radio-Telegraphy. 
The Experimental Station at Elmers End : Lodge-Muirhead 
System. Radio - Telegraph Station at Nauen : Telefunken 
System. Station at Lyngby : Poulsen System. The Lodge- 
Muirhead System, the Marconi System, Telefunken System, and 
Poulsen System. Portable Stations. Radio-Telephony. Ap- 
pendices : The Morse Alphabet. Electrical Units used in this 
Book. International Control of Radio-Telegraphy. Index. 

The startling discovery twelve years ago of what is popularly known 
as Wireless Telegraphy has received many no less startling additions 
since then. The official name now given to this branch of electrical 
practice is Radio-Telegraphy. The subject has now reached a thor- 
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form. The various services for which Radio-Telegraphy is or may 
be used are indicated by the author. Every stage of the subject is 
illustrated by diagrams or photographs of apparatus, so that, while 
an elementary knowledge of electricity is presupposed, the bearings 
of the subject can be grasped by every reader. No subject is fraught 
with so many possibilities of development for the future relationships 
of the peoples of the world. 

India-Rubber and its Manufacture, with Chapters 
on Gutta-Percha and Balata. By H. L. Terry, 
F.I.C., Assoc.Inst.M.M. With Illustrations. 

List of Contents : Preface. Introduction : Historical and 
General. Raw Rubber. Botanical Origin. Tapping the Trees. 
Coagulation. Principal Raw Rubbers of Commerce. Pseudo- 
' Rubbers. Congo Rubber. General Considerations. Chemical 
and Physical Properties. Vulcanization. India-rubber Planta- 
tions. India-rubber Substitutes. Reclaimed Rubber. Washing 
and Drying of Raw Rubber. Compounding of Rubber. Rubber 
Solvents and their Recovery. Rubber Solution. Fine Cut Sheet 
and Articles made therefrom. Elastic Thread. Mechanical 
Rubber Goods. Sundry Rubber Articles. India-rubber Proofed 
Textures. Tyres. India-rubber Boots and Shoes. Rubber for 
Insulated Wires. Vulcanite Contracts for India-rubber Goods. 

( 5 ) 



THE " WESTMINSTER " SERIES 

The Testing of Rubber Goods. Gutta-Percha. Balata. Biblio- 
graphy. Index. 

Tells all about a material which has grown immensely in com- 
mercial importance in recent years. It has been expressly written 
for the general reader and' for the technologist in other branches of 
industry. 

Glass Manufacture. By Walter Rosenhain, Superin- 
tendent of the Department of Metallurgy in the National 
Physical Laboratory, late Scientific Adviser in the Glass 
Works of Messrs. Chance Bros, and Co. With Illustra- 
tions. 

Contents : Preface. Definitions. Physical and Chemical Qualities. 
Mechanical, Thermal, and Electrical Properties. Transparency 
and Colour. Raw materials of manufacture. Crucibles and 
Furnaces for Fusion. Process of Fusion. Processes used in 
Working of Glass. Bottle. Blown and Pressed. Rolled or 
Plate. Sheet and Crown. Coloured. Optical Glass : Nature 
and Properties, Manufacture. Miscellaneous Products. Ap- 
pendix. Bibliography of Glass Manufacture. Index. 

This volume is for users of glass, and makes no claim to be an ade- 
quate guide or help to those engaged in glass manufacture itself. For 
this reason the account of manufacturing processes has been kept 
as non-technical as possible. In describing each process the object 
in view has been to give an insight into the rationale of each step, so 
far as it is known or understood, from the point of view of principles 
and methods rather than as mere rule of thumb description of manu- 
facturing manipulations. The processes described are, with the 
exception of those described as obsolete, to the author's definite know- 
ledge, in commercial use at the present time. 

Precious Stones. By W. Goodchild, M.B., B.Ch. With 
42 IUustrations. With a Chapter on Artificial 
Stones. By Robert Dykes. 

List of Contents : Introductory and Historical. Genesis of 
Precious Stones. Physical Properties. The Cutting and Polish- 
ing of Gems. Imitation Gems and the Artificial Production of 
Precious Stones. The Diamond. Fluor Spar and the Forms of 
Silica. Corundum, including Ruby and Sapphire. Spinel and 
Chrysoberyl. The Carbonates and the Felspars. The Pyroxene 
and Amphibole Groups, Beryl, Cofdierite, Lapis Lazuli and the 
Garnets. Olivine, Topaz, Tourmaline and other Silicates. Phos- 
phates, Sulphates, and Carbon Compounds. 

An admirable guide to a fascinating subject. 

( 6 ) 



THE "WESTMINSTER" SERIES 

Patents, Designs and Trade Marks : The Law 
and Commercial Usage. By Kenneth R. Swan, 
B.A. (Oxon.), of the Inner Temple, Barrister-at-Law. 

Contents : Table of Cases Cited — Part I. — Letters Patent. Intro- 
duction. General. Historical. ' I., II., III. Invention, Novelty, 
Subject Matter, and Utility the Essentials of Patentable Invention. 
IV. Specification. V. Construction of Specification. VI. "Who 
May Apply for a Patent. VII. Application and Grant. VIII. 
Opposition. IX. Patent Rights. Legal Value. Commercial 
Value. X. Amendment. XI. Infringement of Patent. XII. 
Action for Infringement. XIII. Action to Restrain Threats. 
XIV. Negotiation of Patents by Sale and Licence. XV. Limita- 
tions on Patent Right. XVI. Revocation. XVII. Prolonga- 
tion. XVIII. Miscellaneous. XIX. Foreign Patents. XX. 
Foreign Patent Laws : United States of America. Germany. 
France. Table of Cost, etc., of Foreign Patents. Appendix A. — 
i. Table of Forms and Fees. 2. Cost of Obtaining a British 
Patent. 3. Convention Countries. Part II. — Copyright in 
Design. Introduction. I. Registrable Designs. II. Registra- 
tion. IIL Marking. IV. Infringement. Appendix B. — 1. 
Table of Forms and Fees. 2. Classification of Goods. Part 
III. — Trade Marks. Introduction. I. Meaning of Trade Mark. 
II. Qualification for Registration. III. Restrictions on Regis- 
tration. IV. Registration. V. Effect of Registration. VI. 
Miscellaneous. Appendix C. — Table of Forms and Fees. Indices. 
1. Patents. 2. Designs. 3. Trade Marks. 

This is the first book on the subject since the New Patents Act. 
Its aim is not only to present the existing law accurately and as fully 
as possible, but also to cast it in a form readily comprehensible to the 
layman unfamiliar with legal phraseology. It will be of value to those 
engaged in trades and industries where a knowledge of the patenting 
of inventions and the registration of trade marks is important. Full 
information is given regarding patents in foreign countries. 

The Book; Its History and Development. By 
Cyril Davenport, V.D., F.S.A. With 7 Plates and 
126 Figures in the text. 

List of Contents : Early Records. Rolls, Books and Book 
bindings. Paper. Printing. Illustrations. Miscellanea. 
Leathers. The Ornamentation of Leather Bookbindings without 
Gold. The Ornamentation of Leather Bookbindings with Gold. 
Bibliography. Index. 

The romance of the Book and its development from the rude inscrip- 
tions on stone to the magnificent de Luxe tomes of to-day have 
never been so excellently discoursed upon as in this volume. The 
history of the Book is the history of the preservation of human thought. 
This work should be in the possession of every book lover. 

( 7 ) 



Van Nostrand's" Westminster" Series 



LIST OF NEW AND FORTHCOMING 
VOLUMES. 

The Gas Engine. By Captain Ryall Sankey, 

M.I.M.E 

Timber. By J. R. Baterden, A.M.I.C.E. 
Steam Engines. By J. T. Rossiter, M.I.E.E., 

A.M.I.M.E. 

Electric Lamps. By Maurice Solomon, A.C.G.I., 

A.MJ.E.E. 
The Railway Locomotive. By Vaughan Pendred, 

M.I.Mech.E. 

Pumps and Pumping Machinery. By James W. 

Rossiter, A.M.I.M.E. 

Workshop Practice. By Professor G. F. Char- 
nock, A.M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E. 

Textiles and their Manufacture. By Aldred Bar- 
ker, M.Sc. 

The Precious Metals. By Thomas K. Rose, 

D.Sc, of the Royal Mint. 
Photography. By Alfred Watkins, Past Presi- 
dent of the Photographic Convention. 

Commercial Paints and Painting. By A. S. Jen- 
nings, Hon. Consulting Examiner, City and Guilds of 
London Institute. 

Decorative Glass Processes. By A. L. Duthie. 
Brewing and Distilling. By James Grant, F.C.S. 
Wood Pulp and Its Applications. By C. F. Cross, 

E. J. Bevan and R. W. Sindall. 

The Manufacture of Paper. By R. W. Sindall. 
Wood Working Machinery. By Stafford Ran- 

SOME. 



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